Recognizing early the importance of securing accurate body-temperatures in researches of this kind, a number of investigations were made and published elsewhere[15] regarding the body-temperature in connection with the experiments with the respiration calorimeter. It was soon found that the ordinary mercurial clinical thermometer was not best suited for the most accurate observations of body-temperature and a special type of thermometer employing the electrical-resistance method was used. In many of the experiments, however, it is impracticable with new subjects to complicate the experiment by asking them to insert the electrical rectal thermometer, and hence we have been obliged to resort to the usual clinical thermometer with temperatures taken in the mouth, although in a few instances they have been taken in the axilla and the r.e.c.t.u.m. For the best results the electrical rectal thermometer is used.

This apparatus permits a continuous measurement of body temperature, deep in the r.e.c.t.u.m, unknown to the subject and for an indefinite period of time, it being necessary to remove the thermometer only for defecation.

As a result of these observations it was soon found that the body temperature was not constant from hour to hour, but fluctuated considerably and underwent more or less regular rhythm with the minimum between 3 and 5 o'clock in the morning and the maximum about 5 o'clock in the afternoon. In a number of experiments where the mercurial thermometer was used under the tongue and observations thus taken compared with records with the resistance thermometer, it was found that with careful manipulation and avoiding muscular activity, mouth breathing, and the drinking of hot or cold liquid, a fairly uniform agreement between the two could be obtained. Such comparisons made on laboratory a.s.sistants can not be duplicated with the ordinary subject.

It is a.s.sumed that fluctuations in temperature measured by the rectal thermometer likewise hold true for the average temperature of the whole body, but evidence on this point is unfortunately not as complete as is desirable. In an earlier report of investigations of this nature, a few experiments on comparison of measurements of resistance thermometer deep in the r.e.c.t.u.m and in a well-closed axilla showed a distinct tendency for the curves to continue parallel. A research is very much needed at present on a topographical distribution of body temperature, and particularly on the course of the fluctuations in different parts of the body. A series of electric-resistance thermometers placed at different points in the colon, at different points in a stomach tube, in the well-closed axilla, possibly attached to the surface of the body, and in women in the v.a.g.i.n.a, should give a very accurate picture of the distribution of the body-temperature and likewise indicate the proportionality of the fluctuations in different parts of the body.

Until such a research is completed, however, it is necessary to a.s.sume that fluctuations in body-temperature as measured by the electric rectal thermometer are a true measure of the average body-temperature of the whole body. Indeed it is upon this a.s.sumption that it is necessary for us to make corrections for heat lost from or stored in the body. It is our custom, therefore, to compute the hydrothermal equivalent by multiplying the body-weight by the specific heat of the body, commonly a.s.sumed as 0.83, and then to make allowance for fluctuations in body-temperature.

When it is considered that with a subject having a weight of 70 kilos a difference in temperature of 1 C. will make a difference in the measurement of heat of some 60 calories, it is readily seen that the importance of knowing the exact body-temperature can not be overestimated; indeed, the whole problem of the comparison of the direct and indirect calorimetry hinges more or less upon this very point, and it is strongly to be hoped that ere long the much-needed observations on body-temperature can be made.

CONTROL EXPERIMENTS WITH THE CALORIMETER.

After providing a suitable apparatus for bringing away the heat generated inside the chamber and for preventing the loss of heat by maintaining the walls adiabatic, it is still necessary to demonstrate the ability of the calorimeter to measure known amounts of heat accurately. In order to do this we pa.s.s a current of electricity of known voltage through a resistance coil and thus develop heat inside the respiration chamber. While, undoubtedly, the use of a standard resistance and potentiometer is the most accurate method for measuring currents of this nature, thus far we have based our experiments upon the measurements made with extremely accurate Weston portable voltmeter and mil-ammeters. Thanks to the kindness of one of our former co-workers, Mr. S. C. Dinsmore, at present a.s.sociated with the Weston Electrical Instrument Company, we have been able to obtain two especially exact instruments. The mil-ammeter is so adjusted as to give a maximum current of 1.5 amperes and the voltmeter reads from zero to 150 volts. The direct current furnished the building is caused to pa.s.s through a variable resistance for adjusting minor variations in voltage and then through the mil-ammeter into a manganin resistance-coil inside the chamber, having a resistance of 84.2 ohms. Two leads from the terminals of the manganin coil connect with the voltmeter outside the chamber, and hence the drop in potential can be measured very accurately and as frequently as is desired. The current furnished the building is remarkably steady, but for the more accurate experiments a small degree of hand regulation is necessary.

The advantage of the electrical method of controlling the apparatus is that the measurements can be made very accurately, rapidly, and in short periods. In making experiments of this nature it is our custom first to place the resistance-coil in the calorimeter and make the connections.

The current is then pa.s.sed through the coil, and simultaneously the water is started flowing through the heat-absorbing system and the whole calorimeter is adjusted in temperature equilibrium as soon as possible.

When the temperature of the air and walls is constant and the thermal-junction system in equilibrium, the exact time is noted and the water-current deflected into the meter. At the end of one hour, the usual length of a period, the water-current is deflected from the meter, the meter is weighed, and the average temperature-difference of the water obtained by averaging the results of all the temperature differences noted during the hour. Usually during an experiment of this nature, records of the water-temperatures are made every 4 minutes; occasionally, when the fluctuations are somewhat greater than usual, records are made every 2 minutes.

The calculation of the heat developed in the apparatus is made by means of the formula C E _t_ 0.2385 = calories, in which C equals the current in amperes, E the electromotive force, and _t_ the time in seconds. This gives the heat expressed in calories at 15 C. This procedure we have followed as a result of the recommendation of Dr. E.

B. Rosa, of the National Bureau of Standards. In order to convert the values to 20, the unit commonly employed in calorimetric work, it has been necessary to multiply by the ratio of the specific heat of water at 15 to that of water at 20. a.s.suming the specific heat of water at 20 to be 1, the specific heat at 15 is 1.001.[16]

Of the many electrical check-tests made with this type of apparatus, but one need be given here, pending a special treatment of the method of control of the calorimeter in a forthcoming publication. An electrical check-experiment with the chair calorimeter was made on January 4, 1909, and continued 6 hours. The voltmeter and mil-ammeter were read every few minutes, the water collected in the water-meter, carefully weighed, and the temperature differences as measured on the two mercury thermometers were recorded every 4 minutes.

The heat developed during the experiment may be calculated from the data as follows: Average current = 1.293 amperes; average E. M. F. = 109.15 volts; time = 21,600 seconds; factor used to convert watt-seconds to calories = 0.2385. (1.293 109.15 21600 0.2385) 1.001 = 727.8 calories produced.

During the 6 hours 237.63 kilograms of water pa.s.sed through the absorbing system.

The average temperature rise was 3.04 C., the total heat brought away was therefore (237.63 3.04) 1.0024[17] = 724.1 calories.

Thus in 6 hours there were about 3.7 calories more heat developed inside the apparatus than were measured by the water-current, a discrepancy of about 0.5 per cent.

Under ideal conditions of manipulation, the withdrawal of heat from the calorimeter should be at just such a rate as to exactly compensate for the heat developed by the resistance-coil. Under these conditions, then, there would be no heat abstracted from nor stored by the calorimeter and its temperature should remain constant throughout the whole experiment.

Practically this is very difficult to accomplish and there are minor fluctuations in temperature above and below the initial temperature during a long experiment and, indeed, during a short experimental period. If a certain amount of heat has been stored up in the calorimeter chamber or has been abstracted from it, there should be corrections made for the variations in the temperature of the chamber.

Such corrections are impossible unless a proper determination of the hydrothermal equivalent has been made. A number of experiments to determine this hydrothermal equivalent have been made and the results are recorded beyond, together with a discussion of the nature of the experiments. As a result of these experiments it has been possible to make correction for the slight temperature changes in the calorimeter.

It is interesting to note that these fluctuations are small and there may therefore be a considerable error in the determination of the hydrothermal equivalent without particularly affecting the corrections applied in the ordinary electrical check-test. The greatest difficulty experienced with the calorimeter as a means of measuring heat has been to secure the average temperature of the ingoing water. The temperature difference between the ma.s.s of water flowing through the pipes and the outer wall of the pipe is at best considerable. The use of the vacuum-jacketed gla.s.s tubes has minimized the loss of heat through this tube considerably, but it is advisable that the bulb of the thermometer be placed exactly in the center of the water-tube, as otherwise too high a temperature-reading will be secured. When the proper precautions are taken to secure the correct temperature-reading, the results are most satisfactory.

In testing both calorimeters a large number of electrical check experiments have led to the conclusion that discrepancies in results were invariably due, not to the loss of heat through the walls of the calorimeter, but to erroneous measurement of the temperature of the water-current.

DETERMINATION OF THE HYDROTHERMAL EQUIVALENT OF THE CALORIMETER.

While the temperature control of the calorimeter is such that in general the average temperature varies but a few hundredths of a degree between the beginning and the end of an experimental period, in extremely accurate work it is necessary to know the amount of heat which is absorbed with any increase in temperature. In other words, the determination of the hydrothermal equivalent is essential.

The large majority of the methods for determining the hydrothermal equivalent of materials are at once eliminated when the nature of the calorimeter here used is taken into consideration. Obviously, in warming up the chamber there are two sources of heat: first, the heat inside of the chamber; second, the heat in the outer walls. As has been previously described, the zinc wall is arbitrarily heated so that its temperature fluctuations will follow exactly those of the inner wall, hence it is impossible to compute from the weight of the metal the hydrothermal equivalent. By means of the electrical check experiments, however, a method for determining the hydrothermal equivalent is at hand. The general scheme is as follows.

During an electrical check experiment, when thermal equilibrium has been thoroughly established and the heat brought away by the water-current exactly counterbalances the heat generated in the resistance-coil inside the chamber, the temperature of the calorimeter is allowed to rise slowly by raising the temperature of the ingoing water and thus bringing away less heat. At the same time the utmost pains are taken to maintain the adiabatic condition of the metal walls. Since the temperature is rising during this period, it is necessary to warm the air in the outer s.p.a.ces by the electric current. By this method it is possible to raise the temperature of the calorimeter 1 degree or more in 2 hours and establish thermal equilibrium at the higher level. The experiment is then continued for 2 hours at this level, and the next 2 hours the temperature is gradually allowed to fall by lowering the temperature of the ingoing water so that more heat is brought away than is generated, care being taken likewise to keep the walls adiabatic. Under these conditions the heat brought away by the water-current during the period of rising temperature is considerably less than that actually developed by the electric current and the difference represents the amount of heat absorbed by the calorimeter in the period of the temperature rise.

Conversely, during the period when the temperature is falling, there is a considerable increase in the amount of heat brought away by the water-current over that generated in the resistance-coil and the difference represents exactly the amount of heat given up by the calorimeter during the fall in temperature. It is thus possible to measure the capacity of the calorimeter for absorbing heat during a rise in temperature and the amount of heat lost by it during cooling. A number of such experiments have been made with both calorimeters and it has been found that the hydrothermal equivalent of the bed calorimeter is not far from 21 kilograms. For the chair calorimeter a somewhat lower figure has been found, _i. e._, 19.5 kilograms.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF RESPIRATION APPARATUS.

This apparatus is designed much after the principle of the Regnault-Reiset apparatus, in that there is a confined volume of air in which the subject lives and which is purified by its pa.s.sage through vessels containing absorbents for water and carbon dioxide. Fresh oxygen is added to this current of air and it is then returned to the chamber to be respired. This principle, in order to be accurate for oxygen determinations, necessitates an absolutely air-tight system and consequently special precautions have been taken in the construction of the chamber and accessories.

TESTING THE CHAMBER FOR TIGHTNESS.

As already suggested, the walls are constructed of the largest possible sheets of copper with a minimum number of seams and opportunities for leakage. In testing the apparatus for leaks, the greatest precaution is taken. A small air-pressure is applied and the variations in height of a delicate manometer noted. In cases of apparent leakage, all possible sources of leak are gone over with soapsuds when there is a slight pressure on the chamber. As a last resort, which has ultimately proven to be the best method of testing, an a.s.sistant goes inside of the chamber, it is then hermetically sealed, and a slight diminished pressure is produced. Ether is then poured about the walls of the chamber and the odor of ether soon becomes apparent inside of the chamber if there is a leakage. Many leaks that could not be found by soapsuds can be readily detected by this method.

VENTILATION OF THE CHAMBER.

The special features of the respiration chamber are the ventilating-pipe system and openings for supplementary apparatus for absorption of water and carbon dioxide. The air entering the chamber is absolutely dry and is directed into the top of the chamber immediately above the head of the subject. The moisture given off from the lungs and skin and the expired gases all tend to mix readily with this dry air as it descends, and the final mixture of gases is withdrawn through an opening near the bottom of the chamber at the front. Under these conditions, therefore, we believe we have a maximum intermingling of the gases. However, even with this system of ventilation, we do not feel that there is theoretically the best mixture of gases, and an electric fan is used inside of the chamber. In experiments where there is considerable regularity in the carbon-dioxide production and oxygen consumption, the system very quickly attains a state of equilibrium, and while the a.n.a.lysis of the outcoming air does not necessarily represent fairly the actual composition of the air inside of the chamber, it evidently represents to the same degree from hour to hour the state of equilibrium that is usually maintained through the whole of a 6-hour experiment.

The interior of the chamber and all appliances are constructed of metal except the chair in which the subject sits. This is of hard wood, well sh.e.l.lacked, and consequently non-porous. With this calorimeter it is desired to make studies regarding the moisture elimination, and consequently it is necessary to avoid the use of all material of a hygroscopic nature. Although the chair can be weighed from time to time with great accuracy and its changes in weight obtained, it is obviously impossible, in any type of experiment thus far made, to differentiate between the water vaporized from the lungs and skin of the man and that from his clothes. Subsequent experiments with a metal chair, with minimum clothing, with cloth of different textures, without clothing, with an oiled skin, and various other modifications affecting the vaporization of water from the body of the man will doubtless throw more definite light upon the question of the water elimination through the skin. At present, however, we resort to the use of a wooden chair, relying upon its changes in weight as noted by the balance to aid us in apportioning the water vaporized between the man and his clothing and the chair.

The walls of the chamber are semi-rigid. Owing to the calorimetric features of this apparatus, it is impracticable to use heavy boiler-plate or heavy metal walls, as the sluggishness of the changes in temperature, the ma.s.s of metal, and its relatively large hydrothermal equivalent would interfere seriously with the sensitiveness of the apparatus as a calorimeter. Hence we use copper walls, with a fair degree of rigidity, attached to a substantial structural-steel support; and for all practical purposes the apparatus can be considered as of constant volume. Particularly is this the case when it is considered that the pressure inside of the chamber during an experiment never varies from the atmospheric pressure by more than a few millimeters of water. It is possible, therefore, from the measurements of this chamber, to compute with considerable accuracy the absolute volume. The apparent volume has been calculated to be 1,347 liters.

OPENINGS IN THE CHAMBER.

In order to communicate with the interior of the chamber, maintain a ventilating air-current, and provide for the pa.s.sage of the current of water for the heat-absorber system and the large number of electrical connections, a number of openings through the walls of the chamber were necessary. The great importance of maintaining this chamber absolutely air-tight renders it necessary to minimize the number of these openings, to reduce their size as much as possible, and to take extra precaution in securing their closure during an experiment. The largest opening is obviously the trap-door at the top through which the subject enters, shown in dotted outline in fig. 7. While somewhat inconvenient to enter the chamber in this way, the entrance from above possesses many advantages. It is readily closed and sealed by hot wax and rarely is a leakage experienced. The trap-door is constructed on precisely the same plan as the rest of the calorimeter, having its double walls of copper and zinc, its thermal-junction system, its heating wires and connections, and its cooling pipes. When closed and sealed, and the connections made with the cooling pipes and heating wires, it presents an appearance not differing from any other portion of the calorimeter.

The next largest opening is the food-aperture, which is a large sheet-copper tube, somewhat flattened, thus giving a slightly oval form, closed with a port, such as is used on vessels. The door of the port consists of a heavy bra.s.s frame with a heavy gla.s.s window and it can be closed tightly by means of a rubber gasket and two thumbscrews. On the outside is used a similar port provided with a tube somewhat larger in diameter than that connected with the inner port. The annular s.p.a.ce between these tubes is filled with a pneumatic gasket which can be inflated and thus a tight closure may be maintained. When one door is closed and the other opened, articles can be placed in and taken out of the chamber without the pa.s.sage of a material amount of air from the chamber to the room outside or into the chamber from outside.

The air-pipes pa.s.sing through the wall of the calorimeter are of standard 1-inch piping. The insulation from the copper wall is made by a rubber stopper through which this piping is pa.s.sed, the stopper being crowded into a bra.s.s ferule which is stoutly soldered to the copper wall. This is shown in detail in fig. 25, in which N is the bra.s.s ferule and M the rubber stopper through which the air-pipe pa.s.ses. The closure is absolutely air-tight and a minimum amount of heat is conducted out of the chamber, owing to the insulation of the rubber stopper M. The water-current enters and leaves the chamber through two pipes insulated in two similar bra.s.s ferules soldered to the copper and zinc walls. The insulation between the water-pipe and the bra.s.s ferule has been the subject of much experimenting and is discussed on page 24. The best insulation was secured by a vacuum-jacketed gla.s.s tube, although the special hard-rubber tubes surrounding the electric-resistance thermometers have proven very effective as insulators in the bed calorimeter.

A series of small bra.s.s tubes, from 10 to 15 millimeters in diameter, are soldered into the copper wall in the vicinity of the water-pipes.

These are used for electrical connections and for connections with the manometer, stethoscope, and pneumograph. All of these openings are tested carefully and shown to be absolutely air-tight before being put in use.

In the dome of the calorimeter, and directly over the head of the subject, is the opening for the weighing apparatus. This consists of a hard-rubber tube, threaded at one end and screwed into a bra.s.s f.l.a.n.g.e heavily soldered to the copper wall (fig. 9). When not in use, a solid rubber stopper on a bra.s.s rod is drawn into this opening, thus producing an air-tight closure. When in actual use during the process of weighing, a thin rubber diaphragm prevents leakage of air through this opening. The escape of heat through the weighing-tube is minimized by having this tube of hard rubber.

VENTILATING AIR-CURRENT.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 27.--Diagram of ventilation of respiration calorimeter. The air is taken out at lower right-hand corner and forced by the blower through the apparatus for absorbing water and carbon dioxide. It returns to the calorimeter at the top. Oxygen can be introduced into the chamber itself as need is shown by the tension equalizer.]

The ventilating air-current is so adjusted that the air which leaves the chamber is caused to pa.s.s through purifiers, where the water-vapor and the carbon dioxide are removed, and then, after being replenished with fresh oxygen, it is returned to the chamber ready for use. The general scheme of the respiration apparatus is shown in fig. 27. The air leaving the chamber contains carbon dioxide and water-vapor and the original amount of nitrogen and is somewhat deficient in oxygen. In order to purify the air it must be pa.s.sed through absorbents for carbonic acid and water-vapor and hence some pressure is necessary to force the gas through these purifying vessels. This pressure is obtained by a small positive rotary blower, which has been described previously in detail.[18] The air is thus forced successively through sulphuric acid, soda or potash-lime, and again sulphuric acid. Finally it is directed back to the respiration chamber free from carbon dioxide and water and deficient in oxygen. Pure oxygen is admitted to the chamber to make up the deficiency, and the air thus regenerated is breathed again by the subject.

BLOWER.

The rotary blower used in these experiments for maintaining the ventilating current of air has given the greatest satisfaction. It is a so-called positive blower and capable of producing at the outlet considerable pressure and at the inlet a vacuum of several inches of mercury. At a speed of 230 revolutions per minute it delivers the air at a pressure of 43 millimeters of mercury, forcing it through the purifying vessels at the rate of 75 liters per minute. This rate of ventilation has been established as being satisfactory for all experiments and is constant. Under the pressure of 43 millimeters of mercury there are possibilities of leakage of air from the blower connections and hence, to note this immediately, the blower system is immersed in a tank filled with heavy lubricating oil. The connections are so well made, however, that leakage rarely occurs, and, when it does, a slight tightening of the stuffing-box on the shaft makes the apparatus tight again.

ABSORBERS FOR WATER-VAPOR.

To absorb 25 to 40 grams of water-vapor in an hour from a current of air moving at the rate of 75 liters per minute and leaving the air essentially dry under these conditions has been met by the apparatus herewith described. The earlier attempts to secure this result involved the use of enameled-iron soup-stock pots, fitted with special enameled-iron covers and closed with rubber gaskets. For the preliminary experimenting and for a few experiments with man these proved satisfactory, but in spite of their resistance to the action of sulphuric acid, it was found that they were not as desirable as they should be for continued experimenting from year to year. Recourse was then had to a special form of chemical pottery, glazed, and a type that usually gives excellent satisfaction in manufacturing concerns was used.