"And though the hills of Death May hide the bright array, The marshalled brotherhood of souls Still keeps its onward way.

"Upward, forever upward, I see their march sublime, And hear the glorious music Of the conquerors of Time.

"And long let me remember That the palest fainting one May to diviner vision be A bright and blazing sun."

THOMAS BUCHANAN READ.

[Page 117]

VII.

SHOOTING-STARS, METEORS, AND COMETS.

"The Lord cast down great stones from heaven upon them unto Azekah, and they died."--_Joshua_ x. II.

[Page 118]

[Ill.u.s.tration: A SWARM OF METEORS MEETING THE EARTH.

Their orbits are all parallel. Those coming in direct line to the eye appear as stars, having no motion. Those on one side of this line are seen in foreshortened perspective. Those furthest from the centre, other things being equal, appear longest. The centre, called the radiant point, of these November meteors is situated in Leo; that of the August meteors in Perseus. Over fifty such radiant points have been discovered. Over 30,000 meteors have been visible in an hour.]

[Page 119]

VII.

_SHOOTING-STARS, METEORS, AND COMETS._

Before particularly considering the larger aggregations of matter called planets or worlds as individuals, it is best to investigate a part of the solar system consisting of smaller collections of matter scattered everywhere through s.p.a.ce. They are of various densities, from a cloudlet of rarest gas to solid rock; of various sizes, from a grain's weight to little worlds; of various relations to each other, from independent individuality to related streams millions of miles long. When they become visible they are called shooting-stars, which are evanescent star-points darting through the upper air, leaving for an instant a brilliant train; meteors, sudden lights, having a discernible diameter, pa.s.sing over a large extent of country, often exploding with violence (Fig. 48), and throwing down upon the earth aerolites; and comets, vast extents of ghostly light, that come we know not whence and go we know not whither. All these forms of matter are governed by the same laws as the worlds, and are an integral part of the solar system--a part of the unity of the universe.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 48.--Explosion of a Bolide.]

Everyone has seen the so-called shooting-stars. They break out with a sudden brilliancy, shoot a few degrees with quiet speed, and are gone before we can say, "See there!" The cause of their appearance, the [Page 120] conversion of force into heat by their contact with our atmosphere, has been already explained. Other facts remain to be studied. They are found to appear about seventy-three miles above the earth, and to disappear about twenty miles nearer the surface. Their average velocity, thirty-five, sometimes rises to one hundred miles a second. They exhibit different colors, according to their different chemical substances, which are consumed. The number of them to be seen on different nights is exceedingly variable; sometimes not more [Page 121] than five or six an hour, and sometimes so many that a man cannot count those appearing in a small section of sky. This variability is found to be periodic.

There are everywhere in s.p.a.ce little meteoric ma.s.ses of matter, from the weight of a grain to a ton, and from the density of gas to rock.

The earth meets 7,500,000 little bodies every day--there is collision--the little meteoroid gives out its lightning sign of extinction, and, consumed in fervent heat, drops to the earth as gas or dust. If we add the number light enough to be seen by a telescope, they cannot be less than 400,000,000 a day. Everywhere we go, in a s.p.a.ce as large as that occupied by the earth and its atmosphere, there must be at least 13,000 bodies--one in 20,000,000 cubic miles--large enough to make a light visible to the naked eye, and forty times that number capable of revealing themselves to telescopic vision. Professor Peirce is about to publish, as the startling result of his investigations, "that the heat which the earth receives directly from meteors is the same in amount which it receives from the sun by radiation, and that the sun receives five-sixths of its heat from the meteors that fall upon it."

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 49.--Bolides.]

[Page 121]

In 1783 Dr. Schmidt was fortunate enough to have a telescopic view of a system of bodies which had turned into meteors. These were two larger bodies followed by several smaller ones, going in parallel lines till they were extinguished. They probably had been revolving about each other as worlds and satellites before entering our atmosphere. It is more than probable that the earth has many such bodies, too small to be visible, revolving around it as moons.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 50.--Santa Rosa Aerolite.]

_Aerolites._

Sometimes the bodies are large enough to bear the heat, and the unconsumed centre comes to the earth. [Page 123] Their velocity has been lessened by the resisting air, and the excessive heat diminished. Still, if found soon after their descent, they are too hot to be handled. These are called aerolites or air-stones. There was a fall in Iowa, in February, 1875, from which fragments amounting to five hundred pounds weight were secured. On the evening of December 21st, 1876, a meteor of unusual size and brilliancy pa.s.sed over the states of Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. It was first seen in the western part of Kansas, at an alt.i.tude of about sixty miles. In crossing the State of Missouri it began to explode, and this breaking up continued while pa.s.sing Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, till it consisted of a large flock of brilliant b.a.l.l.s chasing each other across the sky, the number being variously estimated at from twenty to one hundred. It was accompanied by terrific explosions, and was seen along a path of not less than a thousand miles. When first seen in Kansas, it is said to have appeared as large as the full moon, and with a train from twenty-five to one hundred feet long. Another, very similar in appearance and behavior, pa.s.sed over a part of the same course in February, 1879. At Laigle, France, on April 26th, 1803, about one o'clock in the day, from two to three thousand fell. The largest did not exceed seventeen pounds weight. One fell in Weston, Connecticut, in 1807, weighing two hundred pounds. A very destructive shower is mentioned in the book of Joshua, chap. x. ver. 11.

These bodies are not evenly distributed through s.p.a.ce. In some places they are gathered into systems which circle round the sun in orbits as certain as those of the [Page 124] planets. The chain of asteroids is an ill.u.s.tration of meteoric bodies on a large scale.

They are hundreds in number--meteors are millions. They have their region of travel, and the sun holds them and the giant Jupiter by the same power. The Power that cares for a world cares for a sparrow. If their orbit so lies that a planet pa.s.ses through it, and the planet and the meteors are at the point of intersection at the same time, there must be collisions, and the lightning signs of extinction proportioned to the number of little bodies in a given s.p.a.ce.

It is demonstrated that the earth encounters more than one hundred such systems of meteoric bodies in a single year. It pa.s.ses through one on the 10th of August, another on the 11th of November. In a certain part of the first there is an agglomeration of bodies sufficient to become visible as it approaches the sun, and this is known as the comet of 1862; in the second is a similar agglomeration, known as Temple's comet. It is repeating the same thing to say that meteoroids follow in the train of the comets. The probable orbit of the November meteors and the comet of 1866 is an exceedingly elongated ellipse, embracing the orbit of the earth at one end and a portion of the orbit of Ura.n.u.s at the other (Fig. 51). That of the August meteors and the comet of 1862 embraces the orbit of the earth at one end, and thirty per cent. of the other end is beyond the orbit of Neptune.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 51.--Orbit of the November Meteors and the Comet or 1866.]

In January, 1846, Biela's comet was observed to be divided. At its next return, in 1852, the parts were 1,500,000 miles apart.

They could not be found on their periodic returns in 1859, 1865, and 1872; but it [Page 125] should have crossed the earth's...o...b..t early in September, 1872. The earth itself would arrive at the point of crossing two or three months later. If the law of revolution held, we might still expect to find some of the trailing meteoroids of the comet not gone by on our arrival. It was shown that the point of the earth that would strike them would be toward a certain place in the constellation of Andromeda, if the remains of the diluted comet were still there. The prediction was verified in every respect. At the appointed time, place, [Page 126] and direction, the streaming lights were in our sky. That these little bodies belonged to the original comet none can doubt. By the perturbations of planetary attraction, or by different original velocities, a comet may be lengthened into an invisible stream, or an invisible stream agglomerated till it is visible as a comet.

_Comets._

Comets will be most easily understood by the foregoing considerations.

They are often treated as if they were no part of the solar system; but they are under the control of the same laws, and owe their existence, motion, and continuance to the same causes as Jupiter and the rest of the planets. They are really planets of wider wandering, greater ellipticity, and less density. They have periodic times less than the earth, and fifty times as great as Neptune. They are little clouds of gas or meteoric matter, or both, darting into the solar system from every side, at every angle with the plane of the ecliptic, becoming luminous with reflected light, pa.s.sing the sun, and returning again to outer darkness. Sometimes they have no tail, having a nucleus surrounded by nebulosity like a dim sun with zodiacal light; sometimes one tail, sometimes half a dozen. These follow the comet to perihelion, and precede it afterward (Fig. 52). The orbits of some comets are enormously elongated; one end may lie inside the earth's...o...b..t, and the other end be as far beyond Neptune as that is from the sun. Of course only a small part of such a curve can be studied by us: the comet is visible only when near the sun. The same curve around the sun may be an orbit that will bring it back again, [Page 127] or one that will carry it off into infinite s.p.a.ce, never to return. One rate of speed on the curve indicates an elliptical orbit that returns; a greater rate of speed indicates that it will take a parabolic orbit, which never returns. The exact rate of speed is exceedingly difficult to determine; hence it cannot be confidently a.s.serted that any comet ever visible will not return. They may all belong to the solar system; but some will certainly be gone thousands of years before their fiery forms will greet the watchful eyes of dwellers on the earth. A comet that has an elliptic orbit may have it changed to [Page 128] parabolic by the accelerations of its speed, by attracting planets; or a parabolic comet may become elliptic, and so permanently attracted to the system by the r.e.t.a.r.dations of attracting bodies. A comet of long period may be changed to one of short period by such attraction, or _vice versa_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 52.--Aspects of Remarkable Comets.]

The number of comets, like that of meteor streams, is exceedingly large. Five hundred have been visible to the naked eye since the Christian era. Two hundred have been seen by telescopes invented since their invention. Some authorities estimate the number belonging to our solar system by millions; Professor Peirce says more than five thousand millions.

_Famous Comets._

The comet of 1680 is perhaps the one that appeared in A.D. 44, soon after the death of Julius Caesar, also in the reign of Justinian, A.D. 531, and in 1106. This is not determined by any recognizable resemblance. It had a tail 70 long; it was not all arisen when its head reached the meridian. It is possible, from the shape of its...o...b..t, that it has a periodic time of nine thousand years, or that it may have a parabolic orbit, and never return. Observations taken two hundred years ago have not the exactness necessary to determine so delicate a point.

On August 19th, 1682, Halley discovered a comet which he soon declared to be one seen by Kepler in 1607. Looking back still farther, he found that a comet was seen in 1531 having the same orbit. Still farther, by the same exact period of seventy-five years, he found that it was the same comet that had disturbed [Page 129] the equanimity of Pope Calixtus in 1456. Calculations were undertaken as to the result of all the accelerations and r.e.t.a.r.dations by the attractions of all the planets for the next seventy-five years.

There was not time to finish all the work; but a r.e.t.a.r.dation of six hundred and eighteen days was determined, with a possible error of thirty days. The comet actually came to time within thirty-three days, on March 12th, 1759. Again its return was calculated with more laborious care. It came to time and pa.s.sed the sun within three days of the predicted time, on the 16th of November, 1835. It pa.s.sed from sight of the most powerful telescopes the following May, and has never since been seen by human eye. But the eye of science sees it as having pa.s.sed its aphelion beyond the orbit of Neptune in 1873, and is already hastening back to the warmth and light of the sun. It will be looked for in 1911; and there is good hope of predicting, long before it is seen, the time of its perihelion within a day.

_Biela's lost Comet._--This was a comet with a periodic time of six years and eight months. It was observed in January, 1846, to have separated into two parts of unequal brightness. The lesser part grew for a month until it equalled the other, then became smaller and disappeared, while the other was visible a month longer.

At disappearance the parts were 200,000 miles asunder. On its next return, in 1852, the parts were 1,500,000 miles apart; sometimes one was brighter and sometimes the other; which was the fragment and which was the main body could not be recognized. They vanished in September, 1852, and have never been seen since. Three revolutions have been made since that time, but no [Page 130] trace of it could be discovered. Probably the same influence that separated it into parts, separated the particles till too thin and tenuous to be seen.

There is ground for believing that the earth pa.s.sed through a part of it, as before stated under the head of meteors.

_The Great Comet of_ 1843 pa.s.sed nearer the sun than any known body. It almost grazed the sun. If it ever returns, it will be in A.D. 2373.

_Donati's Comet of_ 1858.--This was one of the most magnificent of modern times. During the first three months it showed no tail, but from August to October it had developed one forty degrees in length. Its period is about two thousand years. Every reader remembers the comet of the summer of 1875.

_Encke's Comet._--This comet has become famous for its supposed confirmation of the theory that s.p.a.ce was filled with a substance infinitely tenuous, which resisted the pa.s.sage of this gaseous body in an appreciable degree, and in long ages would so r.e.t.a.r.d the motion of all the planets that gravitation would draw them all one by one into the sun. We must not be misled by the term r.e.t.a.r.dation to suppose it means behind time, for a r.e.t.a.r.ded body is before time. If its velocity is diminished, the attraction of the sun causes it to take a smaller orbit, and smaller orbits mean increased speed--hence the supposed r.e.t.a.r.dation would shorten its periodic time. This comet was thought to be r.e.t.a.r.ded two and a half hours at each revolution. If it was, it would not prove the existence of the resisting medium. Other causes, unknown to us, might account for it. Subsequent and more exact calculations fail to find any r.e.t.a.r.dations in at least two revolutions between 1865 and [Page 131] 1871. Indications point to a r.e.t.a.r.dation of one and a half hours both before and since. But such discrepancy of result proves nothing concerning a resisting medium, but rather is an argument against its existence. Besides, Faye's comet, in four revolutions of seven years each, shows no sign of r.e.t.a.r.dation.

The truth may be this, that a kind of atmosphere exists around the sun, perhaps revealed by the zodiacal light, that reaches beyond where Encke's comet dips inside the orbit of Mercury, and thus r.e.t.a.r.ds this body, but does not reach beyond the orbit of Mars, where Faye's comet wheels and withdraws.

_Of what do Comets consist?_

The unsolved problems pertaining to comets are very numerous and exceedingly delicate. Whence come they? Why did they not contract to centres of nebulae? Are there regions where attractions are balanced, and matter is left to contract on itself, till the movements of suns and planets adds or diminishes attractive force on one side, and so allows them to be drawn slowly toward one planet, and its sun, or another? There is ground for thinking that the comet of 1866 and its train of meteors, visible to us in November, was thus drawn into our system by the planet Ura.n.u.s. Indeed, Leverrier has conjecturally fixed upon the date of A.D. 128 as the time when it occurred; but another and closer observation of its next return, in 1899, will be needed to give confirmation to the opinion. Our sun's authority extends at least half-way to the nearest fixed star, one hundred thousand times farther than the orbit of the earth.

Meteoric and cometary matter lying [Page 132] there, in a spherical sh.e.l.l about the solar system, balanced between the attraction of different suns, finally feels the power that determines its destiny toward our sun. It would take 167,000,000 years to come thence to our system.

The conditions of matter with which we are acquainted do not cover all the ground presented by these mysterious visitors. We know a gas sixteen times as light as air, but hydrogen is vastly too heavy and dense; for we see the faintest star through thousands of miles of cometary matter; we know that water may become cloudy vapor, but a little of it obscures the vision. Into what more ethereal, and we might almost say spiritual, forms matter may be changed we cannot tell. But if we conceive comets to be only gas, it would expand indefinitely in the realms of s.p.a.ce, where there is no force of compression but its own. We might say that comets are composed of small separate ma.s.ses of matter, hundreds of miles apart; and, looking through thousands of miles of them, we see light enough reflected from them all to seem continuous. Doubtless that is sometimes the case. But the spectroscope shows another state of things: it reveals in some of these comets an incandescent gas--usually some of the combinations of carbon. The conclusion, then, naturally is that there are both gas and small ma.s.ses of matter, each with an orbit of its own nearly parallel to those of all the others, and that they afford some attraction to hold the ma.s.s of intermingled and confluent gas together. Our best judgment, then, is that the nucleus is composed of separate bodies, or matter in a liquid condition, capable of being vaporized by the heat of the sun, and driven off, [Page 133] as steam from a locomotive, into a tail. Indications of this are found in the fact that tails grow smaller at successive returns, as the matter capable of such vaporization becomes condensed. In some instances, as in that of the comet of 1843, the head was diminished by the manufacture of a tail. On the other hand, Professor Peirce showed that the nucleus of the comets of 1680, 1843, and 1858 must have had a tenacity equal to steel, to prevent being pulled apart by the tidal forces caused by its terrible perihelion sweep around the sun.

It is likely that there are great varieties of condition in different comets, and in the same comet at times. We see them but a few days out of the possible millions of their periodic time; we see them only close to the sun, under the spur of its tremendous attraction and terrible heat. This gives us ample knowledge of the path of their orbit and time of their revolution, but little ground for judgment of their condition, when they slowly round the uttermost cape of their far-voyaging, in the terrible cold and darkness, to commence their homeward flight. The unsolved problems are not all in the distant sun and more distant stars, but one of them is carried by us, sometimes near, sometimes far off; but our acquaintance with the possible forms and conditions of matter is too limited to enable us to master the difficulties.

_Will Comets strike the Earth?_