Psychology of the Mob.--The most interesting instance of psychic contagion is the tendency just hinted at for crowds to run away with the sober judgment of serious sensible people that happen to be among them and do things that may be extremely regrettable. A mob always follows the suggestions of the worst elements in it unless perchance there is some extremely strong character who a.s.serts himself and imposes his views on the rest. The tendencies to panic, to cowardly flight, sometimes to destructiveness, that come over crowds represent the power of psychic contagion to override reason. An alarm of fire will, if a few persons lose their heads, lead to the most serious consequences. Persons trample over one another, pull and maul one another, sometimes even pulling out hair or pulling off ears in their insane efforts to escape what is often an imaginary danger, though a few moments before they were rational beings and they will be quite reasonable a short time after. It is possible, however, to overcome even the worst tendencies in human nature by the suggestive power of discipline. Fire drills in schools enable children to get out in a few minutes without confusion when without them the most serious results could be looked for. Discipline and training, {693} following commands and observing tactics, helps an army almost more than the individual courage of soldiers. The suggestive influence of the thought that now is the time to do something that has often been done before at the word of command is enough to enable the soldier to control his panicky feelings. The difference between the trained soldier and the raw recruit is great, but it consists only in this mental discipline and self-control.

Prevention.--Evidently, then, in the many circ.u.mstances in life in which psychic contagion manifests itself it is perfectly possible to overcome its influence by such discipline and mental training as gives the individual control over himself. In children corporal punishment is often not effective in breaking up habits and tendencies and the motive of fear often lessens self-control and makes conditions worse.

In older people the fear of punishment is likely to be forgotten, whereas the suggestion of discipline will a.s.sert itself powerfully.

Psychic contagion can be neutralized by psychotherapy, but its force in life must be recognized and its unfavorable influence guarded against. While it concerns mainly the less serious things of life, it may affect the most serious and imitation leads even to such serious criminal acts as suicide and murder. The modes of psychic contagion, then, must be constantly under surveillance.

With this before us it is extremely interesting to realize how unfavorably suggestive for human health and happiness are our newspapers. They are constantly suggesting disease and suicide and murder and s.e.x crimes and crimes against property, by giving all the details available with regard to these subjects. Such news can do no good, only excites morbid curiosity which requires still further satisfaction in the same line, and keeps thoughts with regard to these things constantly before the mind. We have had many burglaries and holdups and stealings of various kinds as a consequence of boys and even girls seeing the pictures of crimes in the moving-picture show.

The saturation of mind with disease and crime produced by daily reading of unsavory and sensational newspaper accounts is sure to produce evil effects. There seems to be consolation for some people in reading of the crimes and punishments of others because they feel that, bad as is their own state, there are others who are worse. This _schadenfreude_, "harm-joy" as the Germans call it, is not satisfying to think of for human nature and it has an inevitable reaction through the unfavorable suggestion of these crimes.

I have found over and over again that the prohibition of reading the newspapers for a time did many nervous people much good. This is particularly true for sufferers from such forms of psychasthenia as bring down on them dreads and premonitions of evil in fears for the development of disease and in general a sense of instability with regard to the future, lest dreadful things should happen to them. At first patients object strenuously and seem to be deprived of a great satisfaction. After a time, however, they are invariably persuaded of the fact that the absence of mental contact with human misfortune, in this morbid way, is doing them good and that their dreads and premonitory feelings of evil drop from them.

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SECTION XIX

_DISORDERS OF WILL_

CHAPTER I

ALCOHOLISM

In recent years so much has been said about addiction to alcohol as a disease rather than as a habit that the treatment of it frankly as a disease in psychotherapeutics, even though there be not entire readiness to agree with those who emphasize exclusively the pathological interest of these cases, will not seem surprising. It is with regard to the various habits, drug and alcoholic, occurring in neurotic subjects that psychotherapy proves most effective and has secured some of its real triumphs. As a matter of fact, it has long been conceded that all of the so-called cures for alcoholism are dependent for their success upon the mental effect produced upon the patient. Most of them emphasize the necessity for building up the physical condition of the patient as a necessary preliminary to any lasting cure. There is no doubt that the powers of resistance of a man whose physical health has been seriously impaired by over-indulgence in alcohol and the lack of food and irregular sleep and exposure to the elements that so frequently accompany it, will not be sufficient to enable him to break off the alcohol habit, nor afford him the ability to inhibit the craving for stimulants, that he would have in a state of health. On the other hand, even in good health, unless his moral character is braced up, there will surely be a return to his old habit.

Historical Resume of Cures.--We have had many different cures for alcoholism exploited during the last half century. The older method of the first inebriate asylums founded in this country was to give a man a disgust for liquor, as it was then called, by putting a small amount of alcohol into practically everything that he consumed. This did not give him enough to satisfy his craving, but it did create in him an intense distaste for it by constantly keeping the flavor before him.

There was a drop or two of whiskey in his tea, there was some whiskey in his milk, there was a taste of it in the water that he drank, there was some of it mixed even in the gravy of his meat, and he always had weak brandy sauce on his dessert. The consequence was, in most cases, such a complete disgust for liquor that men were sure that they would never touch it again. Of course, in the meantime they were fed well and heartily, they were kept in an environment free from temptations to excessive indulgence in alcoholic drinks, they had brought home to them what a mess they were making of their lives and their health, they had time to reflect what ruin they were bringing on themselves and their families and usually they {695} recognized that they were the kind of men who must stay away from alcohol absolutely, for whom there could be no such thing as a moderate indulgence in stimulants.

This, with the intense distaste for alcohol, amounting almost to nausea at the sight of it, acquired from the system in vogue, started them well on the road to reform.

_Moral Cures_.--It was the moral elements in the cure, however, that were the most important, though its inventors were sure that the physical elements played the largest role. The physical disgust for alcohol consequent upon having its taste constantly recur in everything at table pa.s.sed off in a few weeks or at the most a few months. It was then that the moral uplift came in and had to be effective if the patient was to be preserved for the future from his old habit. If he was of a weak and flabby character, if, unfortunately, he was placed in circ.u.mstances where temptations were frequent, if, owing to the enforced absence in the inebriate asylum his business affairs had become involved and he was subject to many worries, then almost surely he dropped back. As a result his case was even more hopeless than before and, indeed, second cures were seldom of much benefit, for the man's confidence in himself was gone.

All in all, however, this old-time, simple method probably produced as large a proportion of "real cures" as any other method, even the much advertised and discussed scientific discoveries of modern times. All of us have heard stories of men who had seemed to be hopeless drunkards, who were thus reformed and hundreds of men who appeared to be drifting into hopeless inebriety were reformed to such an extent that they became not only useful members of society and supports to their families where they had before been a drain, but even became leaders in the work of uplifting the character of others to resist the temptation of over-indulgence in stimulants.

_Modern Cures_.--Of late we have had a number of "cures" for alcoholism widely exploited by well-directed advertising in the hands of men who realized what a fortune there was in this sort of thing and who actually have made immense sums of money out of them. Needless to say these "cures," though supposed to be secret, did not long remain so. Perhaps the most famous of them, the one whose inst.i.tutes were found all over the country, was said to have used only two drugs, strychnin and apomorphin. The strychnin was given as a needed and well-chosen tonic for the physical condition of the patients who came to the inst.i.tution usually in a rather seriously broken down condition. When patients began the treatment they were distinctly told that if they wanted whiskey at any time they could have it, but that the next injection of the "cure" after they took the whiskey would show how directly opposed to alcohol the ingredients of it were, by producing vomiting and prostration.

As a rule, the patients came in perfectly confident of the effect of the remedy they had heard so much of. The strychnin injections made an excellent tonic for these nervous wrecks, bracing them up at once so that they felt better from the very beginning and this betterment was confirmed by the growing a.s.surance from the physician and the patients around them that now, at last, they were to be relieved of their degrading habit. To those whose craving for alcohol returned in spite of the favorable condition in which they were placed and the stimulation of the strychnin, which made up so well, as a {696} rule, for the absence of their accustomed alcohol, whiskey was actually allowed. When the next time for their injection came, however, these patients who had been given whiskey on their request did not now receive an injection of strychnin but instead a small injection of apomorphin. The apomorphin acted promptly in making the stomach relieve itself and produced a complete and immediate sense of prostration. The limpness and discomfort of seasickness is as nothing compared to the state that, as a rule, develops after such treatment.

Anyone who has ever had to handle, in a hospital, a wildly drunk, long-sh.o.r.eman, whose brute strength in his irrational condition made him a dangerous object for patients and physicians, who has seen even large doses of morphin fail to produce quiet, and then has felt bound for the patient's sake as well as those around him, to administer a tenth of a grain of apomorphin with the result of having an eminently tractable patient in a few minutes, will have a good idea of what happened to the poor alcoholic who got apomorphin instead of strychnin.

After that the inebriate knew that any further indulgence in liquor would be followed by this extremely unpleasant result and so he had a new argument for avoiding it. After a month or six weeks of careful treatment, the preliminary rest that would restore physical health and strength being followed by a course of exercise in the open air with plenty of good food, pleasant surroundings, and hope constantly held out to them, it is no wonder that these patients went out of the sanitariums as a rule confident that their habit was conquered for good. In many cases this proved to be true. It was soon found, however, that there were many relapses. This hurt the prestige of the "cure" and the gradual diffusion of this idea spoiled its effectiveness. It still continued to do good, however, and though it has been modified in various ways, and, indeed, in various parts of the country is said to be applied quite differently, there are still many reformations worked by these cures every year and they undoubtedly do good. The secret of its success, however, is not any marvelous drug or other mode of treatment that is employed, but is because the victims of alcoholism are given an opportunity to retrieve their physical condition and then to brace up their moral characters so as to resist their craving for alcohol.

_Mental Influence_.--Other so-called cures and treatments have followed almost exactly similar lines. The main element in the cure has been the producing in the mind of the patient a definite idea that he can stay away from liquor if he really wishes to and then helping his run-down physical condition so that he craves stimulants less than before. Whenever such "sure cures" are used on the worst forms of alcoholic patients as we see them in the large general hospitals of our greater cities, the b.u.ms of the streets, the drunkards of a score of years or more, they have practically no effect. The man must have moral stamina, he must have some character left, besides, as a rule, he must have some good reasons in worldly interest to help him to brace up and then he may get away from alcoholism if he sincerely wills to reform. The important element, however, is the will to do so.

If he is firmly convinced that he cannot stay away from liquor, if he feels in spite of all that has been done for him that he cannot resist his craving, then, of course, he will not reform. Men, however, who have sunk to the lowest depths, who, according to their own and others' testimony, have scarcely drawn a {697} sober breath for ten or even twenty years, sometimes have something happen to them, often it seems very trivial to everyone but themselves, that stiffens their relaxed moral fiber, that wakens their sense of manhood, that serves quite beyond expectation to give them a new purpose in life, and they reform and never drink again.

It is this successful phase of the cure of alcoholism, however it may be explained, that is most interesting. It represents the most encouraging aspect of the whole question. Probably nothing more harmful has ever been done than the public proclamation that alcoholism is often an hereditary disease against which it is hopeless to struggle, and that the poor victims of it are to be pitied and not blamed. Except in those of low mentality, whether of intellect or will, or in the actually insane, there never was a case of alcoholism that did not deserve at least as much blame as is usually accorded to it. This is said after making due allowances for temperament. It is quite clear that for one man alcohol has no attractions at all, while for another the craving for it is almost an insuperable temptation. It is idle to say that these two contrasted men are equally free as to whether they shall take alcohol or not. Of course they are not equally free. If the man who has no craving for alcohol prides himself on his power of resistance against the vile habit, he is simply fooling himself. He probably knows nothing about the real nature of the temptation of alcohol. The Spaniards have a proverb: "He who doesn't drink wine and doesn't smoke, the devil gets by some other way." There is probably something else with regard to which the non-alcoholic has quite as little freedom as the poor victim of alcoholism and the great law of compensation comes in to make up to both of them, for their failings. Man has the defects of his virtues.

Supposed Inheritance.--No man is such a slave to the habit, however, that he cannot correct it if he will. We have heard much about the inheritance of this disease. We have heard even more about its essentially morbid character, though people used to think it a moral defect. It must still be considered a moral defect, however, even though we all concede that there is an element of the pathological in it. We are getting away entirely from the ordinary idea of inheritance of disease. There is no inheritance of acquired characters. The fact that a man's father acquired the drinking habit because he was placed in circ.u.mstances where it was easy for him to indulge himself and because he did not have the moral stamina to resist, is no reason why his son should have an unconquerable or even a very strong craving for alcohol. One might as well say that because a father lost a finger when he was young his son would be born without that finger. Alcohol destroyed certain cells in the father's body and injured certain others, but produced no change deep enough to lead to hereditary influences.

_Contagion More than Heredity_.--Perhaps some tendency to take alcohol runs in a family, that is, perhaps there is lessened resistance to the craving for stimulants that awakens in every human being if it is once aroused. This is what is true in tuberculosis. Some people have less resistive vitality to it than others. Careful autopsies show that practically every man who lives to be over thirty has or has had living tubercle bacilli in his tissues. Seven-eighths of us are thoroughly able to resist them. The other eighth succ.u.mbs. Their lack of resistive vitality may in some degree be due to hereditary taint, {698} but that is doubtful and we know that they acquire the disease by contact with others who have it already and, as a rule, it is able to work its ravages because they are not living in conditions that would help them to resist it. If they live in the free open air and have plenty of good, simple food, the disease will not run its fatal course, but nature will cure it. If the craving for alcohol is lighted up by a.s.sociation, aroused by indulgence, rendered strong by environment and by exposure to temptations of all kinds with regard to it, then the resistive power of the individual is so lowered that the alcoholic habit rules him instead of his being able to command it.

_Inherited Resistance_.--The most curious fact that has come out in our studies of heredity in recent years has been that far from heredity working its will in causing degeneration and deterioration of mankind, immunity, for the race at least, is acquired in the course of subjection to disease and to various morbid habits. Nations, for instance, that have been subjected to diseases for long periods no longer display the susceptibility to them which they formerly possessed. After a disease has been endemic among a people for many generations that people gradually becomes quite insusceptible to its effects and suffers much less from it than before.

Just this same thing is true of alcoholism. Nations that have been the longest in a position to be subject to the temptation to use alcohol in its stronger forms suffer least from the ravages of alcoholism. The southern nations of Europe using wine daily and knowing well the process of distillation to help them to make stronger drink for many hundreds of years, now exhibit much less tendency to over-indulgence in strong drink than the northern nations whose ancestors have only in comparatively recent times been subjected to the temptation of craving for strong alcoholic liquors. The att.i.tude of any nation toward alcohol is a function of the length of time that nation has had a chance to procure strong drink easily. Our American Indians discovered, as has every people at some time, that intoxicating liquor could be made by allowing solutions of starch and sugar to ferment. It was only with the coming of the European, however, that they were provided with "fire water"--strong drink--in quant.i.ties. Its effect on them is a matter of history. Two things the white man brought his Indian brother to which the Indians were unaccustomed and that gradually obliterated the original inhabitants of this country--infectious diseases and strong alcoholic liquors. They proved equally fatal because of Indian susceptibility to them.

From these considerations it is clear that just such an immunity to the effect of alcohol is produced in a people exposed to its effects in concentrated form for a long time as with regard to an infectious disease when they have been correspondingly exposed to it. Heredity, then, instead of playing a role that brings about deterioration in the race, on the contrary, carries on the higher qualities and gives us, as might be expected in the course of evolution, a better, that is, a more resistant, race. Most of what is commonly said as to alcoholism, and unfortunately most of the recent so-called popular scientific articles on this subject, seem to point to just the opposite conclusion to this. Men are supposed to be condemned by heredity to an inevitable craving to take alcoholic drinks that, in certain of them at least, cannot be overcome by any natural power of resistance. At this stage of our western civilization this is not true for anyone, as the more susceptible families have been long {699} since eliminated and it is a personal weakness and not a family characteristic that leads people to indulge this appet.i.te to their own destruction.

_Unfavorable Suggestion of Heredity Idea_.--An alcoholic patient, or even a man with only a moderately strong tendency to take alcohol to excess, who harbors any such notion as this, has a serious impediment to the full exercise of his will in overcoming the difficulties that he encounters in any attempt at reform. In going counter to so much that has been written and still more that has been said and generally accepted on this subject I feel it necessary to quote a good recent authority on the matter and so here insert these pa.s.sages from "The Principles of Heredity" by Dr. Archdall Reid. [Footnote 53] He says (p. 157):

[Footnote 53: Author of "The Present Evolution of Man," "Alcoholism,"

"A Study in Heredity," etc. Chapman and Hall, London, 1905. ]

Formerly all the world believed in the transmission of acquirements, and consequently all the world was constantly finding conclusive evidence of its constant occurrence. To-day there is hardly a rag of that evidence left, and, with rare exceptions, only certain French medical observers are able to discover fresh evidence. It is a remarkable fact, however, that the problem of evolution--of adaptation--has excited singularly little interest in France, and it is equally curious that these French observations relate almost entirely to laboratory work which it is not easy to repeat. In Great Britain or Germany, you may cut off the tails of a thousand dogs, or amputate the limbs of a thousand men, or observe the non-infected offspring of a thousand tuberculous patients, and get no evidence of transmission.

With regard to alcohol Dr. Reid in the same volume insists on the proposition that alcohol does not cause degeneration of a race, creating, as is claimed, ever more and more a tendency for people to take it because their immediate ancestors have taken it, but, on the contrary, there is a distinct evolution against it, and that what is hereditary, not by acquisition, but by family trait, is an immunity against the disease which eventually protects the nations that have been longest exposed to the effects of alcohol from the evil consequences of the substance. He says (p. 196):

How, then, has alcohol affected the races that have used it? Are the Jews and the races inhabiting the South of Europe the most degenerate on earth? Are North Europeans only less degenerate? Are the races that have never used alcohol, the Terra del Fuegians, the Esquimaux, and the Australian blacks, for instance, mentally and physically the finest in the world? We have only to state the proposition to see its absurdity. There is no evidence that the hereditary tendencies of any race have been altered by alcohol circulating in the blood and acting directly on the germ plasm. Once again the sufferings of the peoples have produced no effect, but the deaths among the peoples have produced an immense effect. Every race that has had experience of alcohol is temperate in the presence of an abundant supply in proportion to the length and severity of its past experience of the poison. The South Europeans and the Jews are the most temperate peoples in the world. West Africans also are very temperate. North Europeans are not drunken. Those savages, and those only, who have had little or no experience of alcohol--Esquimaux, Red Indians, Patagonians, Terra del Fuegians, Australian blacks--are beyond all the peoples the most drunken on earth.

Lest it should be thought that this discussion of the subject is only of significance with regard to nations and does not touch the individual, and, therefore, has but little significance for the problem that we are treating here. Dr. Reid's succeeding paragraph deserves attention:

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Stated in this brief and direct way, the thesis is apt to excite incredulity. It is sharply opposed to popular beliefs, though that need not trouble us. Popular notions on abstruse points of science are occasionally erroneous. Of more importance is the fact that a ma.s.s of statistics purporting to prove that the children of drunkards tend to be degenerate has been compiled, especially by medical men in charge of lunatic asylums. But no "control"

observations appear to have been made. We know that many drunken parents have normal children; certainly, therefore, parental drunkenness is not invariably a cause of filial degeneration. We know also that many temperate parents have defective children. There is nothing to show that the proportion is greater in the one case than in the other. Even were it established that the proportion of defective children is higher in the case of drunken parents, it would still have to be proved that the relation is one of cause and effect. People who have an inborn tendency to mental defect, who are abnormally depressed, nervous, restless or irritable, are often so const.i.tuted as to find solace in drink. Their children are liable to inherit their inborn mental defects with spontaneous variations--that is, to inherit the defect to a greater or lesser extent. The unborn child of a drunken and pregnant mother is practically another drunken person, as liable, or more liable to suffer from the effects of drink; but in such a case the resulting defect, though a mere acquirement, is tolerably certain to be regarded as a congenital (i. e. inborn) defect by the medical man who sees it. Mere acquirements, also, are the defects due to the ill-treatment, want and neglect to which the children of drunken parents are particularly exposed. Indeed, were it fully established that drunken parents, other than pregnant mothers, tend to have an excessive number of their children "congenitally defective," it would still be a question whether the filial defects were not mere acquirements. Prof. Cossar Ewart's observations on diseased pigeons renders this not unlikely. All these sources of error render the success of a statistical inquiry peculiarly difficult, if not impossible, but there is no indication that they ever occurred to the minds of the compilers.

Warnings as Suggestions.--I have a case in my notes in which a rather prominent professional man insists that he is quite sure that the alcoholism from which he suffered during the ten years between twenty-five and thirty-five was entirely due to suggestion. As a boy of sixteen he had gone off to boarding school, but not until his mother had taken him aside, told him that his father had drunk himself to death, had done it by secret tippling, and that they had found that for many years he had been accustomed to have whiskey near him in his office and take it rather frequently. He had never tasted spirituous liquor at this time and his mother begged him not to, for she felt sure that if he did his father's craving would awaken in him and would become uncontrollable. The day that he went away his father's eldest brother took him aside and said practically the same thing to him. A maiden aunt was not quite so emphatic, but she, too, pleaded with him to understand all the dangers. For his first year at school he did not touch liquor, but in his second year he tasted it once or twice but had no particular craving aroused in him. By chance when he was home at Christmas time some college mates who were visiting him gave his mother the impression that he belonged to a rather jovial set. Once more he was warned by mother and uncle. Above all they told him never to keep strong drink near him because that was what his father used to do. During his college years the fear of this hung over him. He resented it and probably took more liquor than he would have so far as actual craving went. After getting out into active life once more he suggested himself into the habit of taking an occasional gla.s.s of whiskey by himself. After a time he was constantly taking too much.

For {701} ten years he hurt all of his prospects, broke his mothers heart, and was looked upon as a hopeless alcoholic. Then one day the thought came to him that it was not that he craved alcohol so much, but that his thoughts turned on it constantly and at first he dreaded it overmuch, then wondered what attraction there could be and then acquired a habit by suggestion. Once this train of thought worked itself out in his mind, he quit spirituous liquors for good. For ten years he has not touched them, he does not care for them, they do not const.i.tute a temptation.

It must not be forgotten that many warnings may so preoccupy the mind with regard to a danger as to const.i.tute temptations by suggestion.

This is eminently true of alcoholism, the drug habits, s.e.x habits and the like, in spite of the foolish present-day notion that information and warning must necessarily be helpful. In all these, teaching may be suggestively harmful.

Prophylaxis.--The most important part of the treatment of alcoholism through mental influence is by prophylaxis, and that, to be effective, must begin very early. Just as with regard to overeating, as I have pointed out in the chapter on Obesity, it is extremely important not to permit children to acquire habits with regard to alcohol when they are young. During the growing years the system, indeed one may say all the systems of the body--the nervous, the muscular, the digestive and the mental systems--are all more or less unstable. Deep impressions may be produced on them then, and if children are allowed, much less encouraged, during their growing years (and this includes practically all the years up to twenty-five) to indulge in alcohol, then one can look for the development of a craving very hard to eradicate later in life. Many of them will be able to conquer the desire thus awakened, but a great many of them will not. We have some very definite evidence on this point and some of it collected here in America is very valuable. Dr. Alexander Lambert of New York made a study of over 250 cases of alcoholism seen in the wards at Bellevue Hospital, paying special attention to the age at which the patients remembered they had begun the use of alcoholic liquors. If anyone doubts the influence of youth in this matter, then his statistics should be read:

Of 259 instances where the age of beginning to drink was known, four began before six years of age; thirteen between 6 and 12 years; sixty between 12 and 16; one hundred and two between 16 and 21; seventy-one between 21 and 30; and eight only after 30 years of age.

Thus nearly seven per cent. began before 12 years of age, or the seventh school year; thirty per cent. began before the age of 16; and over two-thirds--that is, sixty-eight per cent.--began before 21 years of age.

Dr. Henry Smith Williams, commenting on Dr. Lambert's study of this subject in his article on "The Scientific Solution of the Liquor Problem," [Footnote 54] states emphatically the conclusion so inevitable from these statistics that more than anything else alcoholism is the result of habits and occasions created in early years. He adds some remarks that are worth noting for those who are interested in the prevention and cure of alcoholism, not only in particular cases, but also for the community:

[Footnote 54: _McClure's Magazine_, February. 1909.]