Death and the Mind.--The extent to which the mind can be made to influence the body is apparently without limit. While the doctor is frequently disturbed by the fact that death occurs when there is no adequate physical reason for it, just because the patient has looked forward to it with complete preoccupation of mind, there is no doubt that occasionally death may be put off in the same way. We talk about people living on their wills. This is a literal expression of what actually occurs in certain cases. On the other hand, without the will to live, it is sometimes extremely difficult to keep alive patients who are in a run down condition. If one of an old married couple dies when the other is ill, we conceal the sad news very carefully from the survivor. This is done not alone to put off the shock and sorrow for a time, but because often, under such circ.u.mstances, there will be no will to live.

When the vital forces have run down to such a degree that it seems impossible, so far as ordinary medical reason goes, to look for anything but dissolution, patients still cling to life if there is some reason why they want to live until a definite time. It does not happen so much with the acute diseases but is quite common in chronic cases. Patients will live on expectant of seeing a friend who is known to be hurrying to them, or for some other purpose on which they very strongly set their minds. In the life of Professor William Stokes, the Irish physician, to whom we owe the introduction of the stethoscope to the English medical world, and many other important contributions to medicine, there is a striking story that ill.u.s.trates this power of the will to maintain life until a definite moment.

An old pensioner, a patient of Stokes' in the Meath Hospital whose life was despaired of, and whose death was hourly expected, was one morning distressed and disappointed at observing that Stokes, who believing that the man was unconscious at the time, and that it was useless to attempt anything further as his condition was hopeless, was pa.s.sing by his bed. The patient cried out: "Don't pa.s.s me by, your honor, you must keep me alive for four days." "We will keep you as long as we can, my poor fellow," answered Stokes; "but why for four days particularly?" "Because," said the other, "my pension will be due then, and I want the money for my wife and children; don't give me anything to sleep for if I sleep I'll die." On the third day after this, to the amazement of Stokes and all the cla.s.s, the patient was still breathing. On the morning of the fourth day he was found still breathing and quite conscious, and on Stokes' coming into the ward, he saw the patient holding the certificate which required the physician's signature in his hand. On Stokes approaching him, the dying man gasped out. "Sign, sign!" This was done, the man sank back exhausted, and in a few minutes after crossed both hands over his breast and said, "The Lord have mercy on my soul," and then pa.s.sed quietly away.

_Dread and Death_.--Dr. Laurent in his little book, "La Medecine des ames," [Footnote 12] has a story of similar kind but from a very different motive:

[Footnote 12: Paris, Maloine, 1804.]

They brought to the prison infirmary one day an old burglar, an incorrigible offender, who was undergoing a long sentence. He was suffering from cancer of the stomach, and was already in a very advanced stage of the affection. The poor devil seemed to realize his condition very well, and felt that it was only a question of a short time until he should die. He had made up his mind to that with the {91} resignation which so often characterizes people of this kind. Only one thing put him out very much, and that was the fear of dying in prison.

"I know well that I have to pa.s.s in my checks," he said over and over again; "but I do not want to die here. I do not want to be cut up after I am dead."

He still had two months of his sentence to undergo. Every day the disease made notable progress. His cachexia became more profound.

Life was pa.s.sing from him drop by drop. At the end of five weeks he was scarcely more than a living skeleton. Every morning we expected to find him dead, or at least in his last agony. Nevertheless, every morning, by an effort, he was able to recognize me and a little life shone out of his sharp, small eyes that seemed like those of a bird of prey.

One morning he said to me: "Oh! you need not watch me. You shall not have my carca.s.s. I do not want to die in prison. I shall not die here." He lived on till the end of his sentence. The morning of his freedom he said to me, "I told you that I did not want to die here, and that I would not die here."

By an effort of his will he aroused himself enough so that his friends were able to take him out of the prison. It was the last bit of energy he had, however. His will power was at an end. A few hours after his arrival in the house of his son he went off into a profound depression, and would not talk even to his own. Then his death agony came on, and he died that same evening. The strange and surprising struggle of this man against death, the marvelous force of physiological resistance which the fear of autopsy, if he died, gave him, struck me vividly at the time. What intimate and mysterious bond connects mind and matter that the one is able to react in so much energy upon the other. How wonderful to think that the fear, lest his abandoned body should be cut up, should actually keep body and mind together until after the danger of that dreaded event was pa.s.sed.

_Suggestion and Death._--On the other hand, there are many stories that show us how the giving up of hope of life seems to even hasten death. We have many stories of the death on the same day of husband and wife, or of brothers and sisters who thought very much of each other. Some of these are mere coincidences, but there are too many to be all explained on the score of coincidence. It seems clear that the living one, on hearing of the death of the other, feels that now there is nothing more to live for, and gives up the struggle. Hence the important rule in medical practice that a seriously ill patient should not be told of an accident, and, above all, of the death of a near relative.

On the other hand, strong expectation of death at a definite time, especially if accompanied by suggestions with some physical signs, may bring about actual dissolution. We have a number of well authenticated stories to ill.u.s.trate this.

_Renewal of Hope._--How much energy even the slightest hope may furnish, when apparently all power of effort is exhausted, is well ill.u.s.trated by what happens to men who are lost at sea or in a desert.

After the lapse of a certain length of time human nature seems utterly incapable of further effort and they sink down exhausted. The appearance of a light at a distance, a hail, any communication that gives them even the slightest hope will renew their energy and enable them to draw on unsuspected stores of vitality after the end seemed inevitable. It may be said that the exhaustion in these cases is more apparent than real, that discouragement prevents the release of even the energy that is present, and might be used under more favorable circ.u.mstances, but that is exactly the argument which favors the deliberate employment of psychotherapeutic motives to enable patients to use the energies which they possess. In the midst of disease, or the struggle for life, when vitality is {92} being sapped, hope is lost or obscured, just as it is when a man is alone in the desert or struggling far from help on the ocean. If we can prevent this discouragement from sapping his powers there will always be a prolongation of life, and often this will be sufficient to enable vital resistance to overcome exhausting disease.

Law of Reserve Energy.--Prof. William James [Footnote 13] called particular attention to the law of reserve energy which recent studies in psychology have emphasized. This law of reserve energy is a conclusion from certain facts which are very familiar to men and have been observed as long as the memory of man runs, yet the full significance of which has never been read quite aright. Applied to a very limited range of actions, it has been applied only half-heartedly in ordinary life, and to its full extent only under the pressure of absolute necessity. This law holds out the best promise to psychotherapy. It shows that there are reservoirs of surplus energy in man which, if they can be successfully tapped, present possibilities of resistance to fatigue--and fatigue in many more ways than we used to think resembles disease. Besides, this law represents a very wonderful capacity for withstanding pains and aches and conquering disinclination that would otherwise seem impossible. If it can be made to apply to ordinary life as well as it does to extraordinary events, then the conscious deliberate use of psychotherapy or mental suggestion should prove to have wonderful remedial power. Prof. James said:

[Footnote 13: _American Magazine_, Sept., 1908.]

Everyone knows what it is to start a piece of work, either intellectual or muscular, feeling stale--or "cold," as an Adirondack guide once put it to me. And everybody knows what it is to warm up to his job. The process of warming up gets particularly striking in the phenomena known as second wind. On usual occasions we make a practice of stopping an occupation as soon as we meet the first effective layer (so to call it) of fatigue. We have then walked, played, or worked enough, so we desist. That amount of fatigue is an efficacious obstruction on this side of which our usual life is cast.

But if an unusual necessity forces us to press onward, a surprising thing occurs. The fatigue gets worse up to a certain critical point, when gradually it pa.s.ses away, and we are fresher than before. We have evidently tapped a level of new energy, masked until then by the fatigue obstacle usually obeyed. There may be layer after layer of this experience. A third and fourth wind may supervene. Mental activity shows the phenomenon as well as physical, and in exceptional cases we may find, beyond the very extremity of fatigue distress, amounts of ease and power that we never dreamed ourselves to own--sources of strength habitually not taxed at all, because habitually we never push through the obstruction, never pa.s.s those early critical points.

He then states what has come to be called the law of reserve energy.

_It is evident that our organism has stored up reserves of energy that are ordinarily not called upon, but that may be called upon; deeper and deeper strata of combustion or explosible material, discontinuously arranged, but ready for use for any one who probes so deep, and repairing themselves by rest as well as do the superficial strata_.

There is, then, a marvelous reserve power in men and women which can be used in emergencies and in times of severe strain, to enable men and women to accomplish what looks impossible and which has often contradicted the prognosis of the physician. History is full of applications of this law which, however, does not come into action, unless especially called. Men and women {93} may die simply because they give up the struggle. Men and women who _will not give up_ seem able to overcome severe illness that would take away ordinary people.

It has often been said that tuberculosis takes only the quitters and that men of character const.i.tute the typically favorable patients for tuberculosis sanatoria. Psychology is now getting at the explanation of many events that were formerly quite inexplicable. The science has come to recognize the reservoir of reserve energy in human nature which may be tapped under special favoring circ.u.mstances. The physicians of the past have often succeeded in tapping it deliberately as well as unconsciously. There is large room, however, for the further development of medicine along this line, to the great advantage of therapeutics and probably the most promising field at the present time in view in therapy lies in this direction. Hence the necessity for more deliberate conscious use of it in every possible suitable form.

CHAPTER II

UNFAVORABLE MENTAL INFLUENCE

Much as may be accomplished by psychotherapeutics through favorable mental influence--the modifying of the mental att.i.tude towards disease, diversions of mind from aches and pains, concentration of attention on subjects apart from ailments--much more may be done by removing any unfavorable mental influence. This of itself produces symptoms either by interfering with normal processes through surveillance of them, or by so exaggerating, through attention to them, slight symptoms that may be present that patients are made quite miserable, though there is no adequate physical cause for their condition. Perhaps the most striking example that we have of unfavorable mental influence as productive of the persuasion that disease is present, is familiar to every physician who is close to medical students when they are first introduced to the symptoms of disease. It is almost a rule that certain members of the cla.s.s immediately conclude that they are suffering from one or more of the symptoms which they are studying, and that, therefore, they must have the diseases with which the symptoms are a.s.sociated. If at this time they walk on the shady side of a street on an autumn day and have a little shivery feeling, or when they get into the sun they feel a glow, these two very normal feelings are exaggerated into chilliness and fever, and the student has to go to his professor to have his mental malaria or typhoid treated. To the student, his symptoms are for the moment very real, and unless someone in whom he has confidence rea.s.sures him, his discomfort will probably continue for some time.

Pathological Suggestion.--In a word, suggestions of disease are much easier to take than is usually imagined, and if people read or hear much about diseases they are likely to jump to the conclusion that they are sufferers. Under present conditions there are many more such sinister suggestions put before people than used to be the case. The newspapers are constantly reporting curious cases and rare diseases, and usually those of absolutely unfavorable prognosis and inevitably fatal termination are particularly dilated on. Pathology has become a source of many sensations, until the community {94} generally has come to eke out the thrills of the day's news by reading about fatal diseases and fatal injuries, whenever murder and suicide sensations fail. As a consequence, many become persuaded that they are suffering from forms of disease of which they have not a symptom, and, not infrequently, the wonderful cures that are reported in the newspapers consist of nothing more than recoveries from these imaginary ills into which people have suggested themselves as the result of reading about morbid states.

A typical ill.u.s.tration of the power of the mind to influence the body unfavorably is recognized in many of the comic stories that have had a vogue in recent years. Their underlying thought is that if a man is only told often enough, and by a number of different people, that he does not look well, or if he is even asked a little solicitously as to whether he feels well or not, he will almost invariably begin to persuade himself that there must be something the matter with him.

After a time, under the influence of this unfavorable suggestion, he begins to feel tired and is likely to think that he cannot go on with his work. When meal time comes his appet.i.te fails him. A victim has been even known to go home and send for the doctor, persuaded that there is something the matter, simply because a series of friends, for a joke, or sometimes through a mistake, have insisted on asking him questions that called attention to his state of health. Few men are strong enough to stand the influence of unfavorable suggestion of this kind, if it is frequently repeated. More direct forms of suggestion of disease have, of course, even greater effects. Many a man goes to a quack only feeling a little out of sorts and wanting to rea.s.sure himself, but easily becomes persuaded that there is something serious the matter with him.

Unfavorable Suggestion in Ancient Times.--This unfavorable influence of the mind on the body, even to the extent of the production of disease by means of suggestion, was recognized by the ancients. They knew and wrote of hypochondriasis and, indeed, they invented the term.

In many of these cases the seat of auto-suggestion is supposed to be the digestive organs and the localization of the discomfort is in the hypochondria, that is, in the upper abdominal region. The Grecian writers seemed to recognize clearly that the symptoms were the result of thinking over much about self and concentration of attention upon unfavorable suggestions.

Plato, in the "Republic," says:

In former days the guild of Asclepius did not practice our present system of medicine, which may be said, he declares, to educate diseases. He cites the example of Herodicus who, "being a trainer (of gymnasts) and himself of a sickly const.i.tution, by a happy combination of training and doctoring, came to the invention of lingering death; for he had a mortal disease, which he perpetually tended, and, as recovery was out of question, he pa.s.sed his entire life as a valetudinarian." Plato, finishing the description, makes us recognize the hypochondriac when he says: "He could do nothing but attend upon himself, and he was in constant torment whenever he departed in anything from his usual regimen, and so dying hard, by the help of science he struggled on to old age."

The picture of the neurasthenic, or hypochondriac, who has educated himself, as Plato says, into disease, is an interesting parallel to modern conditions in this matter.

Nowhere more than in this matter of knowledge of disease, can weight {95} be attached to Pope's dictum that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing, and that one must drink deep or touch not the Pierian Spring of medical information. The teaching of pathology under the guise of physiology, now so common in our schools, is likely to do more harm than good. Various pathological conditions, such as those produced by alcohol and tobacco, have been emphasized to such an extent as to produce unfavorable suggestions in the pupils' minds with regard to the untoward events that may happen in their insides, and the serious lasting pathological changes that may occur, though all unconsciously, to the sufferer as the result of indiscretions. The study of the morbid changes produced in the mucous membranes of the digestive tract by the use of stimulants, impresses ideas on the mind that are readily transferred to other abuses in eating or drinking.

The rather vivid pictures and descriptions of the pathological conditions that may develop, become a portion of the acquired consciousness as to internal conditions, and this consciousness acts as an unfavorable suggestive factor whenever there are any digestive symptoms.

Bacteriphobia.--The development of bacteriology has had a similar effect, especially because periodicals and newspapers like to take up only the sensational side of biological discoveries. Most physicians who have had anything to do with nervous diseases have seen cases of misophobia, the fear of dirt, which in our day has taken on the special character of fear of microbes. Those who are sensitive to the possibility of contamination learn of the almost sacrificial precautions that surgeons take to avoid wound infection, and conclude that practically everything they handle must fairly reek with microbes. They hesitate about touching the door k.n.o.b or latch, and invent all sorts of excuses to wait for a moment outside the door in order to have someone else open it. Especially are they timorous about touching the door k.n.o.bs of a physician's residence, or the chairs in his waiting room, or even to shake hands with him. Hospital walls and doors become an abomination to them. These cases emphasize how much of unfavorable suggestion there has been in the present spread of popular knowledge with regard to microbes.

A writer on popular science once said that every time we spread a piece of bread of the size of the hand with b.u.t.ter, we scatter over its surface as many microbes as there are inhabitants in the United States. The expression has gone the rounds, producing its effect on sensitive people, occasionally causing even a disgust for so important an article of diet as b.u.t.ter, more often giving rise to an extreme sensitiveness with regard to any special savor that b.u.t.ter may have, and it may have many according to the prevailing food of the cow.

There has been much emphasis laid on the potentialities for harm of the microbes, and very little on the important part which they play in the production of many forms of food materials. Most people know and dread the fact that microbes produce disease. Very few seem to realize that while we know many thousands of different kinds of microbes, scarcely more than a score of them are known to be seriously pathogenic, while all the others are either indifferent or, as we know of very many, are actually benefactors of mankind.

People have heard much of the flora of the digestive tract, until they have come to think with anxiety of the almost infinite number and mult.i.tudinous variety of the minute plant life that finds a habitat in the human intestine. Most people think that all of these are, in tendency at least, {96} harmful, and are only kept from being positively dangerous by the overwhelming vital activity of the mucous membrane and the secretions which keep them from exerting their malign activity. Very few appreciate the fact that the intestinal flora, far from being a disturbing factor, are often an aid to digestion, and that the equilibrium established among them favors many biological and chemical processes which help in the preparation of food and in the breaking up of waste products that might be dangerous if reabsorbed during their stay in the intestinal tract. Microbes we have always with us and always will have, and men have lived to round old age, not only in spite of them, but very probably partially because of them.

They are part of that beneficent mystery of nature of which as yet, in spite of scientific progress, we know comparatively little.

_Opposing Favorable Suggestion_,--A recent striking change of sentiment with regard to one form of food material furnishes a good example of how little we know about the real effect of bacterial life within the digestive tract. There was a time, not so long since, when sour milk was supposed to be especially harmful, or at least only likely to do good to those of particularly strong digestive vitality.

Metchnikoff's work on the influence of sour milk on the digestive tract, however, has brought a complete reversal of opinion in this matter. Now most physicians are convinced that the bacillus of sour milk, acts in the intestinal tract to inhibit the reproduction and growth of other, and possibly more disturbing, bacterial agents. Sour milk is looked upon as one of the things that, by neutralizing certain unfortunate bacterial processes in the digestive tract, lead to longevity. There seems no doubt at all, that those who consume a great deal of it, live longer lives than the average, and many old men have taken to its use with a consequent amelioration of digestive annoyances.

The popularization of bacteriology, then, has been one of those moments of unfavorable suggestion that have affected a large number of people. Such influences do not mean much for people of phlegmatic temperament. For others, however, they have a weighty significance and make every symptom, or more properly every sensation, that is at all unusual in the digestive tract, seem of ominous import. Certain sensations inevitably accompany digestion. The peristaltic movements are usually said to be unfelt, but even a slight exaggeration brings them into the sphere of sensation. Where attention is given to the abdominal region and its contents, feelings that ordinarily are not noticed at all come to be perceived. With the unfavorable suggestion derived from the unfortunate diffusion of a superficial knowledge of pathology and of bacteriology instead of hygiene and the science of beneficent microbiology, these feelings produce a bad effect upon the individual.

Familiar Examples of Unfavorable Suggestion.--There are many familiar examples of the discomfort that may be produced by the mental persuasion that something will disagree with us, or that certain feelings have a significance quite beyond that which ought to be attributed to them. Everyone knows how qualmy may be the feeling produced by being told that something eaten with a relish contained some unusual material, or was cooked under unclean conditions. Food that agrees quite well with people, so long as they do not know too much about it, often fails to be beneficial after they see how it has been prepared. It is often said that people would not relish the food {97} placed before them if they were aware how lacking in cleanliness was the place of its preparation, and how negligent those who had charge of it. Occasionally a peep at the kitchen of a boarding house effectually takes away appet.i.te, or disturbs the equanimity with which food must be taken, if there is to be that undisturbed digestion which makes for healthy nutrition.

It is, indeed, with regard to digestion that the influence of the mind on the body, favorable as well as unfavorable is, perhaps, most effectively exercised. Unfortunately the unfavorable influence is even more p.r.o.nounced than its opposite. Some people are much more sensitive than others in this respect, and even the thought of certain defects in the preparation of their food seriously disturbs them. Everyone has had the experience of seeing sensitive persons leave the table because some one insisted on telling a nauseating tale. Anyone who has seen the effect of talking of blood sausage or fried brains with black b.u.t.ter sauce at a table on shipboard, when some practical joker was exercising his supposed wit, knows how much the imagination can disturb, not only appet.i.te but digestion. The att.i.tude of mind means much, and especially are such unfavorable suggestions likely to produce serious effects in inhibiting digestion.

_Suggestion and Seasickness_.--Seasickness ill.u.s.trates the place of unfavorable suggestion in digestion. The nausea, consequent upon the movement of a vessel at sea, is due to a disturbance of the circulation within the skull, and particularly of the circulation in the semi-circular ca.n.a.ls. The organ of direction of the body is disturbed by the over-function demanded of it, consequent upon the continuous movement of the vessel. This is, however, only a predisposing element. A strong additional factor is the firm persuasion many people have that they will suffer from nausea and seasickness, and the unfavorable expectancy thus aroused. Most people have to give their dole to Neptune. Those who for weeks before have been expecting and dreading it usually pay a heavy tribute. Probably the best remedy for seasickness is the suggestion that there is no necessity for losing more than a meal or two, if even that much, provided there is simplicity of diet and proper predisposition of body by gentle opening of the bowels, and lack of the over-feeding that sometimes comes from dinners given before departure. I have known many people who, after suffering severely not in one but in many voyages, have, by means as simple as this, been saved from days of seasickness even in rough weather.

Most of the cures for seasickness that have been suggested have depended princ.i.p.ally on the suggestive element. For instance, there is no doubt that many people are relieved by wearing dark gla.s.ses, and this remedy does good for train sickness and other afflictions of a similar kind. There is, however, no good physical reason why wearing dark gla.s.ses should help except through their constant physical suggestion. A simple remedy that has helped many through seasickness is the wearing of a sheet of glazed paper, usually some heavy writing-paper, immediately over the skin of the abdominal region. This of itself has no physical effect, but the sensation of its presence constantly obtrudes itself, and by making people feel that they must be better because a great many other people have declared that they were bettered by this remedy, they actually suffer less from nausea and vomiting. Many of the internal remedies employed for seasickness are directed to the stomach and intestines. {98} As the seat of the difficulty is not here but within the skull, the reputation which these remedies have acquired has been due largely to the suggestive effect of taking them rather than to any physical qualities they possessed, though of course they have served to set at rest stomachs disturbed by unfavorable expectancy.