220. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.--In the earlier part of our national history free land was abundant and immigration relatively small in volume; after the eighties free land disappeared and immigration increased rapidly. It was toward the end of the nineteenth century, therefore, that the economic aspect of the immigration problem became acute. In the last decades of that century manufacturing developed rapidly, and American cities became important centers of population. Large numbers of immigrants were attracted by the opportunities for employment in urban centers. An addition to this factor, immigrants continued to concentrate in the cities, partly because of the spirit of clannishness, partly because of the disappearance of free land, and partly because the development of agricultural machinery reduced the demand for agricultural laborers.

Still another influence was the fact that the unfamiliar American farm was less attractive to the southern European immigrant than was the opportunity of performing unskilled labor in the city. To-day four fifths of our immigrants are unskilled laborers who are employed chiefly in mining, construction work, transportation, and domestic service.

From the economic standpoint, the chief objection to unrestricted immigration is that it prevents the wages of American workmen from rising as rapidly as would otherwise be the case. The newly arrived immigrant usually has a lower standard of living than has the native American; that is to say, the immigrant is content with less in the way of food, clothing, house room and education than is the native.

When newly arrived immigrants come into compet.i.tion with native workmen, the immigrant generally offers to work for a lower wage than the native. But though relatively low, this wage is so much higher than the newly arrived immigrant has been used to, that he feels justified in marrying early and rearing a large family. This adds to the supply of unskilled labor.

In order to compete with the recent immigrant, the native must accept relatively low wages. In order to get along on these relatively low wages, the native must either lower his standard of living or postpone marriage. Sometimes he has lowered his standard of living; sometimes he has preferred to retain his relatively high standard of living, and to get along on the decreased wage either by postponing marriage, or by permanently abandoning his plans for a normal family life. It is contended, therefore, that an oversupply of unskilled immigrant labor in this country has had at least two injurious results. First, it has kept the standard of living of American workmen from rising as rapidly as would otherwise have been possible. Second, it has caused the birth rate to decline among the native groups.

221. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.--The tendency of immigrants to concentrate in American cities gives rise to a number of serious social problems. Urban congestion is unqualifiedly bad. It is difficult or impossible for immigrants living in crowded quarters to maintain proper health standards. Nor does overcrowding conduce to healthy morals. The foreign born do not show an unusual tendency toward crime, which is remarkable when we consider the immigrant's ignorance of our laws, as well as the ease with which unscrupulous persons exploit him. On the other hand, the children of the foreign born often show a strong tendency toward crime and vice, a fact which is attributed to the bad social conditions surrounding their homes.

The percentage of dependency among immigrants is rather high. This is not surprising, however, for many immigrants must go through an adjustment period in which lack of financial reserves is likely to force them to call upon charitable agencies for temporary aid.

222. DIFFICULTY OF a.s.sIMILATING THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.--Those who made up the "old" immigration a.s.similated rapidly: they were relatively like the native stock in manners and customs, the volume of immigration was relatively small, and the newcomers spread out into frontier communities where habitual contact with natives was unavoidable.

Those who make up the "new" immigration have a.s.similated less rapidly: they are relatively unlike the native stock in language, race, and customs; the volume of immigration is very great; and rather than being uniformly distributed, the "new" immigrants tend to concentrate in cities where they are often little subject to contact with natives.

Members of foreign "colonies" not only tend to remain ignorant of American life, but unfamiliarity with self-government encourages their exploitation by political "bosses." It is admitted by the most careful students that the lack of proper civic ideals among una.s.similated foreigners in American cities is a large element in the corruption of our munic.i.p.al governments.

223. RESTRICTIVE LEGISLATION.--Exclusive control of immigration is vested in the Federal government. During the Civil War Congress actually encouraged immigration, but since 1882 our policy has been one of restriction. In the latter year the first general immigration act was pa.s.sed, though considerable legislation on the subject was already on the statute books. Supplementary laws were enacted from time to time, the most important piece of legislation since 1900 being the Immigration Act of 1917. A brief summary of this and previous acts will serve to show the nature and extent of Federal control over immigration.

The chief aim of our immigration laws has been so to restrict immigration as to protect us against undesirable persons. In the interest of health, persons afflicted with contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, and trachoma,--a virulent eye disease,--are excluded.

Certain persons whose character is clearly immoral are excluded.

Polygamists are excluded. The Act of 1917 excludes anarchists, and likewise bars from our sh.o.r.es all criminals, except those who have committed political offenses not recognized by the United States. In order to reduce unnecessary tax burdens, as well as to safeguard community health, we also exclude insane persons, idiots, epileptics, beggars, and other persons likely to become public charges. Contract laborers are specifically excluded, the Act of 1917 using the term "contract labor" to include anyone "induced, a.s.sisted, encouraged, or solicited" to come to this country "by any kind of promise or agreement, express or implied, true or false, to find employment."

Persons over sixteen years of age are excluded from the United States if they cannot read English or some other language. [Footnote: Certain near relatives of admissible aliens, purely political offenders, and persons seeking refuge from religious persecution, are exempted from this literacy test, however.]

The bars against Asiatics call for a special word.

224. ASIATIC IMMIGRATION.--By Asiatic immigration is here meant Chinese and j.a.panese immigration, immigrants from other parts of Asia being relatively unimportant.

The discovery of gold in California in 1849 caused a large number of Chinese coolies to migrate to this country. This immigration grew steadily until 1882, in which year the entrance of Chinese laborers into the United States was forbidden. Our exclusion policy has been repeatedly reaffirmed, as the result of which there are to-day fewer than 70,000 Chinese in this country. The majority of these are found on the Pacific Coast, engaged as small tradesmen, truck farmers, or personal servants.

j.a.panese immigration to this country did not become noticeable until about 1900. After that date, however, the volume of j.a.panese immigration so alarmed the Pacific Coast states that a j.a.panese exclusion policy was formulated as early as 1907. At present the only cla.s.ses of j.a.panese that are allowed to reside in this country permanently are "former residents," "parents, wives or children of residents," or "settled agriculturists," the latter being j.a.panese already in possession of land here. There are at present fewer than 120,000 j.a.panese in this country. Most of them are found on the Pacific Coast, engaged in occupations similar to those of the Chinese in the same area. [Footnote: Chinese and j.a.panese students desiring to study in this country are allowed to enter the United States by special arrangement.]

Those most familiar with the situation are practically unanimous in declaring for the continued exclusion of Chinese and j.a.panese immigrants. In the case of both races, the standard of living is so much lower than that of native Americans that open compet.i.tion between the newly arrived Asiatic and the native American would result in the latter being driven from the labor market. The most important social reason for the exclusion of these two races is that the differences of race and religion existing between Asiatics and native Americans render a.s.similation of the Chinese and j.a.panese extremely difficult, if not impossible.

225. THE FUTURE OF IMMIGRATION.--A half century ago the belief was current that an immigration policy was unnecessary, since the sources of immigration would eventually dry up. The sources of the "old"

immigration have dried up somewhat, but new sources have been opened up in southern and southeastern Europe. Immigration is a pressing social problem, and it is likely that it will be even more pressing in the future. The American frontier has disappeared and our boundaries are fixed. Urbanization is proceeding at a rapid rate, industry is becoming more complex, public opinion is more insistent that such social problems as immigration shall be solved.

226. WHAT SHALL BE OUR ATt.i.tUDE TOWARD IMMIGRATION?--There is no good reason why immigration should be absolutely prohibited. On the other hand, the most public-spirited students of the question believe that the careful restriction of immigration is imperative. Clearly, it is our duty to accept only such immigrants as show promise of becoming capable and efficient American citizens. It is also clearly our duty to accept even this type of immigrant only in such numbers as we can conveniently a.s.similate. We must not be selfish with America, but we should not be misled by the statement that anyone in Europe has a "right" to make his home in this country. Those who come to this country are personally benefited, no doubt, but unrestricted immigration may lower the tone of American life and permanently injure our social and political inst.i.tutions. America is for the present generation, but is also for posterity. The millions of unborn have as much right to be considered as have the millions now clamoring at our gates. For this reason, the "right" of an individual to migrate to America must be interpreted in the light of what he will mean to the future of this country.

227. HELPING THE IMMIGRANT IN HIS NEW HOME.--The readjustment, a.s.similation, or "Americanization" of the immigrant is a problem of vital importance. The term "Americanization" is variously interpreted, and must be used with care. Americanization ought not to force the immigrant to give up his native tongue, or his old-country customs. It ought to be a mutually helpful process, whereby native Americans would help the immigrant in adjusting himself to his new environment, while, in turn, the immigrant would be permitted and encouraged to make his own contribution to American life. Since the immigrant has little or no opportunity to contribute to American life until he has become adjusted to his new home, it follows that the most fundamental part of an Americanization program is one of helping the immigrant solve his problems.

In carrying out this part of the Americanization program it is essential that the newly arrived alien be protected against unscrupulous persons who seek to exploit him. Adequate laws ought to be supplemented by the work of immigrant aid societies and other private organizations whose duty it would be to protect immigrants against dishonest boarding houses, swindlers, unreliable banks, and other forms of imposition. Friendly help of this type will do much toward encouraging and inspiring the alien in his new life.

Improvement in the immigrant's economic status is an important part of an Americanization program. Not only does the undue concentration of immigrants in cities spell ill-health and a great temptation to crime and vice, but immigrant laborers sometimes secure lower wages in cities than they would receive in the more spa.r.s.ely settled parts of the country. Of considerable interest, therefore, is the recent development of plans for redistributing immigrants into the rural and spa.r.s.ely populated districts. [Footnote: The movement to transfer immigrants to the rural districts is not unqualifiedly good; indeed, it may do more harm than good. For the dangers of this movement, see Chapter XXV.] Since 1907 the Division of Information in the Bureau of Labor Statistics has done valuable work in finding employment for immigrants in rural districts. Much remains to be done, however.

The school, of course, is an important agent of Americanization.

Whether or not the immigrant retains his old-country language, he ought to learn to speak, read and write English. The school is likewise an important means of instructing the newcomers and their children in the essentials of American history and government. Where the school is being used as a real community center, the inst.i.tution becomes truly a method of introducing the foreign-born to the everyday activities of American life. The increasing emphasis upon the racial traits of different immigrant groups, with a view to encouraging unique contributions to the culture of the community, deserves special notice.

Americanization measures of the type touched upon in this section help to build the nation on a sound foundation of friendly and intelligent cooperation.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What proportion of our population is foreign-born? What proportion is native?

2. Distinguish between the "old" and the "new" immigration.

3. Describe the increasing volume of immigration.

4. Outline the distribution of immigrants in this country.

5. What are the economic effects of immigration?

6. Explain the relation of immigration to the wages and standard of living of American workmen.

7. What are the social effects of immigration?

8. What factors impede the a.s.similation of the "new" immigrants?

9. What cla.s.ses of aliens are excluded from this country? What is "contract labor"?

10. What is the nature of Asiatic immigration? Why are Asiatics excluded?

11. Does it seem likely that the immigration problem will be more or less acute in the future? Why?

12. What should be our att.i.tude toward immigration?

13. What is the chief aim of a good Americanization program?

REQUIRED READINGS

1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xx.

Or all of the following:

2. _Annals_ of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. xciii, pages 134-138, 156-161.

3. Burch and Patterson, _American Social Problems_, chapters ix and x.

4. Ellwood, _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, chapter x.

5. Roberts, _The Problem of Americanization_, chapters iii and iv.

QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS

1. Define a foreigner. (_Annals_, page 135.)

2. What is Professor Walker's theory of immigration? (Burch and Patterson, pages 95-96.)