The conveyor dryer consists essentially of a steel enclosure, through which the skins pa.s.s on horizontal conveyors. Where special insulation is necessary, asbestos panels are used to line the enclosure, making the dryer absolutely fireproof, and enabling the maximum utilization of heat.

In the middle of the dryer are located the steam coils which furnish the heat, and in many instances exhaust steam can be used as the source of heat. Figure 10 shows diagrammatically the arrangement and operation of the conveyor type of dryer. The enclosure is divided into several compartments, in each of which a different condition of temperature and humidity is maintained, the temperature being closely and accurately regulated by an automatic control, and once the dryer has been set for any condition, all skins will be dried exactly the same, regardless of weather or season.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 11. CONVEYOR DRYER.

(_Proctor & Schwartz, Inc., Philadelphia._)]

The skins to be dried are placed on poles which in turn are set on the horizontal conveyors as in Fig. 11. As the skins pa.s.s through the compartments, large volumes of air, heated to the required temperature over the steam coils, are circulated among the skins by means of the fans.

Exhaust fans, properly placed, remove a certain quant.i.ty of moisture-laden air when it has accomplished its full measure of work. When the skins on the conveyors have pa.s.sed the full length of the dryer, they are entirely dry, and are then removed from the poles. (Fig. 12). The time required for drying varies according to the nature of the fur from 12 hours to 68 hours. In tests made to determine the relative efficiency of the conveyor type of dryer as against the old "loft" method, it was found that there was a saving of over 50% in power, and of 85% in floor s.p.a.ce, as well as a great saving of labor, when the conveyor system was used, the number of skins dried in a given period of time being the same in both cases.

The advantages of the new method are easily apparent, and the saving is sufficiently great with large lots of furs, to make an appreciable difference in the final cost of dressing.

If the skins have been dried by a modern drying system they all come out in a uniform condition, and are ready to go on immediately to the next operation. If, however, a form of the "loft" method of drying has been used, it is customary to subject the skins to an additional process. The dried pelts are put in drums with damp sawdust, and drummed for a short time in order to get them into the proper condition. The drumming is essential for the purpose of equalizing the condition of the pelts, some being drier than others, and as a consequence of the contact with the moist sawdust, they are all brought to the same degree of dryness. As a result of this operation also, the skins become considerably softened.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 12. DELIVERY END OF CONVEYOR DRYER.

(_Proctor & Schwartz, Inc., Philadelphia._)]

Then if the pelts have not been previously oiled during the tanning process, or prior to the drying, they receive this treatment now. The oil or fat is applied to the leather side of the furs, which are then placed in the tramping machine for a short time in order to cause the oil to be forced into the skin. The fibres of the corium thus become coated with a thin layer of fatty material, which contributes greatly to the softness and flexibility of the pelt, and increases its resistance to the action of water, and also, in certain instances a partial chamois tan is produced, thereby improving the quality of the leather.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 13. STRETCHING MACHINE FOR CASED SKINS.

(_Reliable Machine Works, Evergreen, L. I._)]

The skins are now returned to the work bench, and subjected to the stretching or "staking" process. This consists in drawing the skin in all directions over the edge of a dull blade, which is usually fixed upright in a post with the edge up. Or, the stretching may be done on the fleshing bench, subst.i.tuting a dull blade for the fleshing knife. Recently staking machines are being used in the larger establishments, the work being done much more quickly and efficiently. As a result of this operation, the leather becomes very soft and flexible, every bit of hardness and stiffness being eliminated, and the skins receive their maximum stretch, thereby giving the greatest possible surface to the pelage. This not only helps to bring out the beauty of the hair, but is also a decided advantage from the economic point of view, as a considerable saving of material is effected in this way, sometimes even to the extent of twenty-five per cent. Cased skins are stretched in a somewhat different manner, by means of stretching irons. These consist of two long iron rods joined by a pivot at one end. The skins are slipped on to the irons, which are then spread apart, and in this way the skins are stretched and softened. A machine which does this work very efficiently is shown in Fig. 13. The skin is drawn onto the stretching arms, in this case made of bronze, which are then forced apart by pressing on a pedal. When properly stretched to the maximum width in all directions possible, and thus thoroughly softened, the skin can easily be reversed, that is, turned hair-side out. As many as 6000 skins can be stretched, or 4000 to 5000 skins stretched and reversed by one man in one day on such a machine.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 14. FUR BEATING MACHINE.

(_S. M. Jacoby Co., New York._)]

The pelts are then combed and beaten. In smaller plants these operations are done by hand, but suitable machines are being employed. In order to straighten out the hair, it is combed or brushed. Then in order to loosen up the hair, and to cause it to display its fullness, the furs are beaten.

This process is also done by hand in some establishments, but up-to-date places use mechanical devices for this purpose. A type of machine which has proven very successful, and is enjoying considerable popularity is shown in Fig. 14. These machines are also made with special suction attachments which remove all dust as it comes out of the beaten skin, thereby making this formerly unhealthful operation thoroughly sanitary and hygienic.

The final process is drum-cleaning. This operation is intended specifically for the benefit of the hair part of the fur, and is very important inasmuch as the attractive appearance of the fur depends largely upon it. The drum, such as is shown in Fig. 15 is generally made of wood, or sometimes of wood covered with galvanized iron. The skins together with fine hardwood sawdust are tumbled for 2 to 4 hours, or sometimes longer.

Occasionally a little asbestos or soapstone is added to the sawdust; for white, or very light-colored skins, gypsum or white sand is used, either alone, or in admixture with the sawdust; and for darker skins, graphite or fine charcoal is sometimes added in small quant.i.ties. The drum-cleaning process polishes the hair, giving it its full gloss and l.u.s.tre, and at the same time absorbing any oil or other undesirable matter which may be adhering to the hair as a result of the washing and tanning processes.

Any soap, or traces of mordant are wiped off and so removed, and by using heated sawdust, or heating the drum while rotating, the fur acquires a fullness and play of the hair which are great desiderata in furs. The sawdust must then be shaken out of the furs. This is done by cageing. In some instances, the drum itself can be converted into a cage, by replacing the solid door with one made of a wire screen. (Fig. 16.) Usually, however, the skins are removed from the drum and put in a separate cage, which is built like the drum, but has a wire net all around it, through which the sawdust falls, while the skins are held back. The cages are generally enclosed in compartments in order to prevent the sawdust from flying about and forming a dust which would be injurious to the health of the workers. In large establishments, the drum-cleaning machinery occupies a large section of the plant, many drums and cages being used, and special arrangements being made to take care of the sawdust which can be used over again several times, until it becomes quite dirty.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 15. DRUM. (COMBINATION DRUM AND CAGE AS A DRUM.)

(_F. Blattner, Brooklyn, New York._)]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 16. CAGE. (COMBINATION DRUM AND CAGE AS A CAGE.)

(_F. Blattner, Brooklyn, New York._)]

With this operation ends the ordinary procedure of fur dressing. But there are several additional processes required in the treatment of certain furs, which are generally undertaken by the dresser, and chief among these are shearing and unhairing. Sometimes this work is done in separate establishments organized solely for this business. Certain kinds of furs, among them being seal, beaver and nutria, possess top-hair which may detract from the beauty of the fur, the true attractiveness being in the fur-hair. The top-hairs are therefore removed, and for this purpose machines are now being used. Formerly this work was all done by hand, and on the more expensive furs like seal and beaver, unhairing is now done on a machine operated by hand. The principle of the process is as follows: The skins are placed on a platform and the hair blown apart by means of a bellows. The stiff top-hairs remain standing up, and sharp knives are brought down mechanically to the desired depth, and the hair is cut off at that point. The skin is then moved forward a short distance, and the process repeated until all the top-hairs have thus been cut out. With muskrats, or other pelts which do not require such very careful attention, the whole process is done automatically on a machine. The fur-hair is brushed apart by means of brushes and a comb, and at regular intervals, sharp knives cut off the top-hairs. Several hundred skins can be unhaired in a day on such a machine requiring the attention of only one man. A machine for unhairing skins is shown in Fig. 17.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 17. UNHAIRING MACHINE.

(_Seneca Machine & Tool Co., Inc., Brooklyn, N. Y._)]

With other furs, such as rabbits, hares, etc., where the trouble of unhairing would be too great commensurate with its advantages, the hair is sheared instead. The top hair is cut down to the same length as the under-hair by means of shearing machines which can be regulated to cut to any desired length of hair. A typical device for shearing furs is shown in Fig. 18.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 18. FUR-SHEARING MACHINE.

(_Seneca Machine & Tool Co., Inc., Brooklyn, N. Y._)]

CHAPTER VII

WATER IN FUR DRESSING AND DYEING

The a.s.sertion has often been made, although its absurdity is now quite generally realized, that the success of the European fur dressers and dyers, particularly in Leipzig, is due to the peculiar nature of the water used, which is supposed to be especially suited for their needs.

The achievements in this country in the fur dressing and dyeing industry during the past few years are ample and sufficient answers to the claim of foreign superiority in this field no matter what reason may be given, and particularly when the quality of the water used is advanced as a leading argument. For the water employed by the establishments in and about New York, as well as in other sections of the country is surely not the same as the water of Leipzig, yet the work done here is in every respect the equal of, if not better than the foreign products.

It is interesting to note that similar rumors were current here in the early period of the development of the American coal-tar industry since 1914. Our efforts to establish an independent dyestuff industry were doomed to failure, according to those who circulated the stories, because we did not have the water, which they claimed was responsible for the German success. The present status of the American dye business, in its capacity satisfactorily to supply most of the needs of this country and of others as well, speaks for itself.

However, as is often the case with such erroneous a.s.sertions, there is just enough of an element of truth in the statement regarding the peculiar qualities of certain kinds of water, to make the matter worthy of consideration. Water is certainly a factor of great importance in fur dressing and dyeing, and it is not every sort of water that is suitable for use. This fact was recognized by the early masters of the art, for they invariably used rain-water as the medium for their tanning and dyeing materials, and their choice must be regarded as an exceedingly wise one.

While the necessity for giving consideration to the quality of the water for fur dressing purposes is great, it is in fur dyeing that the effects of using the wrong water are largely evident, and so extra care must be exercised in the selection of water for this purpose.

The essential requirements for a water suitable for the needs of the fur dressing and dyeing industry, are: first, a sufficient, constant and uniform supply; and second, the absence of certain deleterious ingredients. Chemically pure water is simply the product of the combination of two parts by volume of hydrogen with one part by volume of oxygen. Such water can only be made in the laboratory, and is of no importance in industry. For practical purposes, distilled water may be regarded as the standard of pure water. Here, too, the cost and trouble involved in the production of distilled water on a large scale is warranted only in a certain few industrial operations. A natural source of water which in its character most nearly approaches distilled water is rain. In fact, rain-water is a distilled water, for the sun's heat vaporizes the water from the surface of the earth forming clouds, which on cooling, are condensed and come down as rain. Rain-water is usually regarded as the purest form of natural water. Exclusive of the first rain after a dry period, rain-water is quite free of impurities, except possibly for a small percentage of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are practically harmless, and which can usually be readily eliminated by heating the water. Moreover, rain-water is quite uniform in its composition throughout the year in the same locality, and it possesses all the desirable qualities of a water suited for fur dressing and dyeing purposes. Formerly when the quant.i.ty of water used in the industry was comparatively small, the supply from rain was sufficient to meet all the requirements. But now, when tremendous quant.i.ties of water are used constantly, rain-water is no longer a feasible source, and other supplies must be utilized, although in a sense, all water may be traced to rain-water as its origin.

When rain-water falls on the earth it either sinks into the ground until it reaches an impervious layer, where it collects as a subterranean pool, forming a well, or continues to flow underground until it finally emerges at the surface as a spring; or on the other hand the rain-water may sink but a short distance below the surface, draining off as ponds, lakes or rivers. In the first case the water is called ground water, in the latter it is known as surface water. Ground water usually contains metallic salts in solution, and relatively little suspended matter. If the water has percolated through igneous rocks, like granite, it may be quite free even of dissolved salts, and such water is considered "soft."

If, however, the rocky formations over which, or through which, the water has pa.s.sed contain limestone or sandstone, or the like, salts of calcium and magnesium will be dissolved by the water. The presence of the lime and magnesia salts, as well as salts of aluminum and iron, in the water, causes it to be what is termed "hard." Surface water is more likely to contain suspended matter, with very little of dissolved substances.

Suspended matter, like mud, contains much objectionable matter such as putrefactive organisms and iron, but most of these materials can be removed by filtration or sedimentation, and seldom cause any difficulties.

Hardness in water is generally the chief source of trouble when the water is at fault. Hardness may be of two kinds, either permanent, or temporary, or sometimes both are found together. Water which is permanently hard usually contains the lime and magnesia combined as sulphates. Temporary hardness, on the other hand, is due to the presence of lime and magnesia in the form of bicarbonates, the carbon dioxide contained in the water having dissolved the practically insoluble carbonates:

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O = Ca(HCO3)2 calcium carbon water calcium carbonate dioxide bicarbonate

Temporary hardness can be eliminated by heating the water, the carbon dioxide being expelled and the carbonates of lime and magnesia being precipitated and then filtered off. Both permanently and temporarily hard waters can be softened by the addition of the proper chemical, such as an alkaline carbonate like sodium carbonate. This precipitates insoluble carbonates of the lime, magnesia, iron and aluminum, leaving a harmless salt of sodium in solution in the water. The sludge is allowed to settle in tanks before the water is used.

In fur dressing and dyeing, water is employed for soaking and washing the skins, dissolving chemicals, extracts and dye materials, and also for steam boilers. A small amount of hardness in the water is not harmful, and up to 10 parts of solid matter per 100,000, may be disregarded.

Permanent hardness is particularly objectionable in water for boiler purposes, as it forms scale. The effect of the impurities of the water depends on the nature of the chemicals and dyes used. Where acids are used in solution compounds of magnesium, lime and aluminum will generally not interfere. Hard water must not be used for soap solutions, as sticky insoluble precipitates are formed with the soap by the metals, this compound adhering to the hair, and being difficult to remove, will cause considerable trouble in subsequent dyeing. An appreciable loss of soap also results, as one part of lime, calculated as carbonate will render useless twelve parts of soap. In tanning or mordanting, where salts of tin, aluminum or iron are employed, hard water should not be used, as lime and magnesia will form precipitates with them. Bichromates will be reduced to neutral salts, and cream of tartar will also be neutralized. With dyes also, hard water has a deleterious effect. Basic dyes are precipitated by this kind of water, rendering part of the dye useless, and also causing uneven and streaky dyeings. Sometimes the shades of the dyeings are modified or unfavorably affected. Considerable quant.i.ties of lime and magnesia in the water will cause duller shades with logwood and fustic dyeings. The presence of iron, even in very slight quant.i.ties generally alters the shade, darkening and dulling the color.

These facts were apparently all recognized and understood by the fur dressers and dyers of an earlier period, for instead of utilizing the water of lakes and streams near at hand, which afforded a more constant supply, but which contained harmful impurities, they collected the rain-water, which was always soft. Whether they realized the nature and character of the substances that make water hard is uncertain, but they were always careful to avoid such water. At the present time establishments located in and about large cities like New York, where the majority of American fur dressing and dyeing plants are situated, have no trouble about the water. The cities supply water which is soft, suitable alike for drinking and industrial purposes. Other plants, not so fortunately situated, often have to employ chemical means to treat the water so as to make it suitable for use.

CHAPTER VIII

FUR DYEING

INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL