To find the solidity of a sphere: Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236.

To find the cubic contents of a cone: Multiply the area of the base by one-third the alt.i.tude.

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water: Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.

Standard Horse-power: The evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at 70 pounds gauge pressure.

To find the capacity of any tank in gallons: Square the diameter in inches, multiply by the length, and then by .0034.

In making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy.

The toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent.

of phosphorus.

All alloys of metals having mercury are called _amalgams_.

A sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent.

Hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all imitations.

A strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water.

A grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil.

One barrel contains 3-3/4 cubic feet.

One cubic yard contains 7-1/4 barrels.

To find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions.

Divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley. The result will be the number of revolutions of the driven pulley.

To find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number of revolutions in the same time: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven pulley.

A piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt while running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the belt.

Boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. To prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will precipitate these elements in the water. The cheapest and most universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda.

Gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and sulphur. To unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen retort.

Rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may be wiped off. Clean afterwards with fine emery cloth.

Plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but the disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use is, therefore, very much limited. To prevent quick setting mix a small amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed, and this will keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness when it sets.

For measuring purposes a tablespoon holds 1/2 ounce; a dessertspoon 1/4 ounce; a teaspoon 1/8 ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs 1/2 pound; two teacupsful of b.u.t.ter weigh 1 pound; 1-1/3 pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound; one pint of distilled water weighs 1 pound.

Ordinarily, 450 drops of liquid are equal to 1 ounce; this varies with different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly accurate.

CHAPTER XIV

THE SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS, AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATIONS

If there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions are the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law in nature which is universal in its application, and that is vibration.

There is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. It is not a complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles and recesses. It is the very simplicity in most of the problems which long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. So extremely simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from accidents.

INVENTION PRECEDES SCIENCE.--Occasionally inventions were brought about by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by theorizing; but science rarely ever aids invention. The latter usually precedes science. Thus, reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force water into a boiler against its own pressure. But the injector does this.

If, prior to 1876, it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to a sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but the telephone does it. Invention shows how things are done, and science afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which become serviceable to others in the arts.

SIMPLICITY IN INVENTIONS.--But let us see how exceedingly simple are some of the great discoveries of man.

THE TELEGRAPH.--The telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens and closes the circuit that pa.s.ses through the magnets and armature, so that an impulse on the lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the circuit, also makes and breaks the circuit at the other end.

TELEPHONE.--The telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching the end of a magnet. The sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet, it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm at the other end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound originally imparted to the other diaphragm.

TRANSMITTER.--The transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument. It depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented.

PHONOGRAPH.--The phonograph is not an electrical instrument. It has a diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin, or stylus. To make the record, some soft or plastic material, like wax, or tinfoil, is caused to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it, and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove of greater or smaller indentations. When this groove is again presented to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds originally imparted to it when the indentations were made.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.--Wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what is called induction. Through this property a current is made of a high electro-motive force, which means of a high voltage, and this disturbs the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all directions to immense distances.

The great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to detect the induction waves. The instrument for this purpose is called a coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the electric waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the electrical impulses.

PRINTING TELEGRAPH.--The printing telegraph requires the synchronous turning of two wheels. This means that two wheels at opposite ends of a wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed. Originally, this was tried by clock work, but without success commercially, for the reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator, as at different lat.i.tudes, nor at alt.i.tudes; and temperature also affects the rate. The solution was found by making the two wheels move by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed everywhere, and under all conditions.

ELECTRIC MOTOR.--The direct current electric motor depends for its action on the principle that likes repel, and unlikes attract. The commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points, in the revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to each other in such a way that as they approach each other, they are opposites, and thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. A dynamo is exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation and makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they recede.

Steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of carbon.

Quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has been made infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the molecules with acids. Sulphate of quinine is made by the use of sulphuric acid as a solvent.

EXPLOSIONS.--Explosions depend on oxygen. While this element does not burn, a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion.

Thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless oxygenized. Explosives are made by using a sufficient amount, in a concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support combustion, hence the rapid explosion which follows.

VIBRATION IN NATURE.--The physical meaning of vibration is best ill.u.s.trated by the movement of a pendulum. All agitation is vibration.

All force manifests itself in this way.

The painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface; the brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart; all, alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion.

QUALITIES OF SOUND.--Sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of greater or less magnitude. Pitch is produced by the number of vibrations; intensity by their force; and quality by the character of the article vibrated.

Since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or sounds. It was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive instruments have been devised to register the force and quality.