These end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book, and when it is not possible to st.i.tch them with the machine they must be sawn in before overcasting, or the sawing would cut the threads.

Now for the sewing. We stretch the requisite number of cords, which are secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone as soon as it is taken off the hook. At the bottom a double loop is made, through which a key is pa.s.sed so as to hold the stretched cord underneath the moveable board.

Fig. 28--Loops for attaching to frame hooks.

Fig. 29--Loops for taking frame keys.

The length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book, and as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they are all sewn the same way, the length of the cords is regulated accordingly; it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn. Cheap books get 3 cm. for every cord on each side more than the thickness of the book, that is 6 cm. plus the thickness of the book. School books get still shorter cords. For extra work, where the ends of the cords are laced through the boards, one should allow double. It is easy to calculate the length required for a single volume, but rather difficult for a batch of books varying in thickness; it is then better to measure.

For example, suppose we have to sew a batch of six books, all differing in thickness but measuring in all 25 cm. high; we would allow for cheap work: 6 vols., each taking 6 cm. extra lengths = 36 cm. + total height, 25 cm., making 61 cm.; for extra work: 6 vols., each taking 12 cm. extra lengths = 72 cm. + 25 total height = 97 cm. length of cord.

The collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in hollandering (Fig. 17), the sheets taken hold of in the same way, and laid open for sewing. Of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts, and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left, so as to give the left arm full play. Here also, as in hollandering, the left hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet, whilst the right inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out.

Fig. 30--Suggestion for sewing on four cords.

Fig. 31--Suggestion for sewing on six cords.

The first and last sheets--called end sheets--are sewn a little differently from the others, as the needle is here not inserted and drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to allow them to be adjusted afterwards. Sewing[1] with us is invariably begun with the last sheet at the right, working on to the left, and reversing the process with the following sheet, and so to the end, so that the thread one way pa.s.ses from and the other to the worker. With all other sheets, excepting the end sections, the thread is inserted at the kettle st.i.tch and brought out at the next cord, round the cord, and inserted at the same hole, to be brought out again at the next cord, and so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle st.i.tch and is inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process. With books sewn on four cords, it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords alternately, so that each time the thread pa.s.ses on to the right the right middle cord is skipped, and the left is skipped when the thread pa.s.ses in the opposite direction. This facilitates and shortens the work without taking away from durability or quality. Books on 6 cords may be treated in the same way; the right and left of each pair of cords may be skipped alternately. It was for this reason that we paid attention to the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in (see Fig. 23).

Footnote 1: In England, France, and part of Holland, sewing is begun with the t.i.tle page.

This method of sewing is known as "end to end," in contradistinction to "two sheets on." The former is the better method and is essential for valuable books, unless the sections are exceptionally thin. The latter is "good enough" (_i.e._, not worth much) for the trade and cheap work.

As far as strength is concerned it would do, but a book sewn in this way does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove.

It is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets lie close and firm together; this is called "pressing down." Should this, however, not be sufficient, the back must be knocked firm from time to time with the dividers or a rule.

The first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and preceding respectively; but in the course of the sewing this enchaining to the preceding sheets--the so-called kettle st.i.tch--is only necessary in the case of very thick sections. It is done by pa.s.sing the needle through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath.

The two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top of the first after making the first st.i.tch in the first sheet and then pa.s.sing the needle through the second sheet, then the third st.i.tch is made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet. One length of thread is used for the two sheets. Where the sheets have not been cut open, the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have been cut, a folder is placed in the middle and is shifted from one to the other as required. The process is the same whether there are only three cords or even six.

Fig. 32--Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.

It has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame; in this case the volumes must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed.

The free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be sc.r.a.ped open more easily afterwards, and then one volume after another is drawn along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free cords away from each other, which, of course, will vary according to the subsequent style of binding.

So then we allow 6 and 12 cm. according to circ.u.mstances; but this length is curtailed to 3 cm. in the cheap school books, because the shorter the cords the quicker they are sc.r.a.ped open. Every cord is cut in the middle between the books with the shears, thus separating each volume from the other. The strands of the loose ends of the cords are now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the sc.r.a.per and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife.

After sc.r.a.ping the cords, the end-paper guards are always pasted down; the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table, the first sheet with the end paper is turned downwards, the end-paper guard is bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet, paste it neatly and carefully, close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the end paper is level with the others, but not the end paper itself--this must project a little at the back. When only one finger is required for pasting it must be the middle finger, so that the forefinger is free from paste and ready to take hold of anything.

If st.i.tched end papers are used for extra work, a sheet of paper is laid on the second sheet so as to leave 3 mm. free, paste this strip and bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet, taking care to square it at the outside with the body of the book.

The folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking.

If the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out, the result will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished.

In half-cloth or other simple bindings, the sc.r.a.ped cords may be pasted on at once. Bring a little paste (about the size of a pea) upon the point of a folder under the slightly raised cord, pasting the latter evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather. To prevent the pasted cords sticking to each other, the books are piled up back and front until dry. In extra work, the cords--which are also longer--must by no means be pasted on; a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords, level with the backs. This serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly to make a good joint when covering.

The volumes so prepared are now glued up. They must be knocked up at head and back; they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board specially kept for this work--the glueing board--with the fore-edge of which they must be exactly level. On top must be placed a smaller board or a heavy piece of iron, likewise level with the book. The book backs are thus held firmly between the glueing boards, the left hand holding them firmly by pressing on the top, the right hand glueing the backs with very hot but not thick glue; rub this well in with the point of a hammer, and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush, use it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs. An old trick of the bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work. It is a bad plan to give the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry, because it at once becomes brittle. Some experienced workers place the books between the glueing boards so as to leave about 1 cm. projecting, as it is thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets; but this method is out of date and is of no special value. It is, however, of great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly square at the head as well as the back, for if this is neglected no amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape.

Before pa.s.sing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the mechanical contrivances for sewing. For small as well as large binderies, machines have been invented both for wire st.i.tching and thread sewing; the former are more generally used, the latter not being sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and accuracy. Then also the method of fastening the book in the cover differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for improvement. When this comes to pa.s.s, this machine will then supersede the wire-st.i.tching machine, with all its unavoidable disadvantages. The working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost entirely by girls. We refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical appliances within the limits of a short treatise, as any day may bring forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this department. Besides these costly appliances there are also simpler sewing-machines for small shops, by which books are sewn in very simple fashion over steel needles, by means of which the cords may afterwards be drawn along.

Fig. 33--Thread-sewing machine.

Fig. 34--Wire-sewing machine.

As these machines demand very large saw-cuts, they can only be used for trade work and any cheap lines. We only mention them to draw attention to their existence. Unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well as cords. This method of sewing is described in Chapter IX.

CHAPTER III.

CUTTING, ROUNDING, BACKING.

Fig. 35--Rotary guillotine.

In nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing, and it is best to do this before the glue is quite set. Even in extra work books are nowadays trimmed on three sides, that is, before the book is rounded each side is cut one after the other. This method has the advantage that it is quicker, that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge cannot break, and that it is easy to treat every side during the process of marbling.

Of course, in the best work the book is first cut at the front, rounded, pressed, and then cut top and bottom.

Under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of tr.i.m.m.i.n.g with the plough, for, although this is a most valuable tool, it would not pay to use it now, and the shops where it is still in use are few and far between; besides, our German machines now do the work so thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest cla.s.s of work by their aid.

Fig. 36--Lever guillotine.

The machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and small books. Rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable where both heavy and light work have to be done.

The fore-edge is generally trimmed first; the back of the book is carefully adjusted to the "back gauge," the back gauge is so adjusted by moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the point marked beforehand. The first principle to be observed in tr.i.m.m.i.n.g is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book.

Measuring and marking for tr.i.m.m.i.n.g are done with the dividers; the latter is called "marking for cutting." When the back gauge has been adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife, the clamp which holds the book in position is screwed down and the machine set in motion. The book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness, and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or, at least, well sharpened.

Something must be done in tr.i.m.m.i.n.g top and bottom to prevent the groove at the back from receiving too much pressure. The simplest means is to glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp. If a piece of stout cloth has been pasted to this board, it will afterwards be easily removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only. If cloth is not used, pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and cause no little inconvenience.

Instead of this, there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the clamp in a simple way, either by screws or springs, and they are just as simply removed.

The bottom edge has to be cut first, as one is thus able to adjust the head--which, of course, must be rectangular--against the back gauge and then to make the bottom edge parallel. After cutting this edge, the book is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to get the top edge ready for cutting. Whilst doing this, care must always be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement made for saving the groove from pressure is effective.

Fig. 37--Top edge arranged for tr.i.m.m.i.n.g when tr.i.m.m.i.n.g three edges.

As our machines are made to cut from left to right, the book back must be on the left.

Very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably thinner in some places than at others. These thin places must be properly packed with paper or strips of board, otherwise the knife is sure to tear or jag, no matter how sharp it may be. This packing may be left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out.

If any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on a much-used bed, it must be removed with a very sharp knife.

The trimmed volumes are "rounded," _i.e._, they are rounded and the groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted. For this reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to be used.

Fig. 38--Rounding the book.

To round a book, slightly damp its glued back, place it on a firm stone or metal bed, and knock it round with a hammer. Properly speaking the process is as follows: The left hand takes hold of the back of the book lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form, the right hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to the other.