As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should be observed:

1.--The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by larger type or s.p.a.cing.

Fig. 95--Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.

Figs. 96 and 97--Two richly decorated insides done in the Dusseldorf Technical School.

2.--The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.) is placed between the lines, the more effective will the t.i.tle be; such words must be set in smaller type.

3.--Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short alternating as much as possible.

4.--The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the princ.i.p.al catch-word.

Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101--Four richly tooled backs.

5.--The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then decreases.

6.--Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best t.i.tle tells what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a little distance.

Fig. 102--Rich half-calf extra binding.

It is impossible to mark out the whole of the t.i.tle with the dividers unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the s.p.a.ces can be measured.

The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed at half the distance between the lines.

If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile, latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir, &c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes.

In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his t.i.tle never being so cramped into little s.p.a.ce.

The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by evenly smoothing and polishing the t.i.tle panel with a burnisher. Such a back with the t.i.tle panel enclosed within a square with only a fine double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed, especially the t.i.tle.

Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces, which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.

For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp.

149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).

Figs. 103 and 104--Tooling on heads.

The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher cla.s.s work. Of course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this work, being worked on the cap as seen in the ill.u.s.trations, and always directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the gold taken up by the book itself.

The accompanying ill.u.s.trations give suggestions for the gilding of edges.

Figs. 105, 106, and 107--Tooling on the edges of the boards.

Fig. 108--Motive executed in the Dusseldorf Technical School.

Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement is drawn along the straight edge. The line is drawn away from the worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the edge the more effective the line.

Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury.

For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains uncovered.

Fig. 109--Case to protect book.

Fig. 110--Cut-out case.

The parts _A_ overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the machine.

Fig. 111--Book cover.

Fig. 112--Cover in case form.

Similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper; and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining ill.u.s.tration (Fig. 110).

Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this would be cut from stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case covering (See Fig. 111).

Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth, which extends over the parts _B_ and _C_, all the rest being covered with dark pressed paper.

CHAPTER X

ACCOUNT BOOKS.

Account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to deal fully with which would require a volume in itself.

To-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. Upon this principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a patent, has become a somewhat expensive style.

It is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover works loose.

For account books, only the best and strongest paper--ruled or printed--is used, always according to sample. Of course, the work of ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book.

The paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets, according to the thickness and quality of the paper. For heavy books a strip of jaconet is folded in the middle of the inner sheet of each section before sewing, and, in any case, this should be done with every first and last three sheets. The end paper makes a section in itself, which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing--it has previously been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet. In the end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted.

Figs. 113 and 114--End papers for account books.

The following is a practical way of making the end paper:--

1.--Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour, and fold in the middle.

2.--One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.

3.--The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is sewn, or

3a.--A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold the second section is sewn.

Better-cla.s.s work intended to serve for years of office use is again being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine wire-st.i.tched.