II. j.a.pAN.

CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT.--In the seventh century A.D., there began changes in j.a.pan which resulted in a dual government, and eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent times. The _Mikados_ retired from personal contact with their subjects; and the power by degrees fell into the hands of the families related to the Mikado, and combined into clans. Military control was exercised by the generals (_Shoguns_), and towards the end of the eighth century devolved on the two rival clans of _Gen_ and _Hei_, or _Taira_ and _Minamoto_. About the same time (770-780) the _agricultural_ cla.s.s became distinct from the _military_, and were compelled to labor hard for their support. One family, the _Fujiwara_, by degrees absorbed the civil offices. They gradually sank into luxury. From the middle to the end of the twelfth century, there was terrible civil war between the _Taira_ clan and the _Minamoto_ clan, in which the former were destroyed. The military power pa.s.sed from one family to another; but a main fact is that the _Shoguns_ acquired such a control as the "mayors of the palace"

had possessed among the Franks. The _Mikados_ lost all real power, and the _Shoguns_ or _Tyc.o.o.ns_ had the actual government in their hands. In recent times (1868) a revolution occurred which restored to the Mikado the power which had belonged to him in the ancient times, before the changes just related took place.

CIVIL WAR: FEUDALISM.--The final struggle of the two clans, the _Hei_ or _Taira_, and the _Gen_ or _Minamoto_, was in the naval battle of _Dannoura_, in 1185, which was followed by the extermination of the _Taira_. _Yoritomo_, the victor, was known as the Shogun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in 1219 to that of their adherents, the _Hojo_ family, who ruled the Shogun and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mongol Tartars failed, their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon (1281). The _Hojo_ rule terminated, after a period of anarchy and civil war, in 1333. The "war of the chrysanthemums"--so called from the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum--was between two rival Mikados, one in the North, and the other in the South (1336-1392). There ensued a period of confusion and internal war, lasting for nearly two centuries. Gradually there was developed a system of feudalism, in which the _daimios_, or lords of larger or smaller princ.i.p.alities, owned a dependence, either close or more loose, on the _Shogun_. But feudalism was not fully established until the days of the _Tokugama_ dynasty, early in the seventeenth century.

III. INDIA.

MOHAMMEDAN STATES.--During the Middle Ages, India was invaded by a succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The first invasions were in the seventh and the early part of the eighth centuries. A temporary lodgment was effected in the province of _Sind_, on the north-west, in 711; but the Moslems were driven out by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was the _Afghan_ sultan, _Mahmud_ of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies seventeen times into India. From his time the _Punjab_, except for a brief interval, has been a Mohammedan province. The last of his line of rulers, _Bahram_, was conquered by the Afghan _Allah-ud-din_ of Ghor (1152). Bahram's son fled to _Lah.o.r.e_, but the _Ghoride_ dynasty soon absorbed his dominion. One of the Ghoride rulers, _Mohammed Ghori_, the _Shahab-ud-din_ of the Mohammedan writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. After his death, _Kutab-ud-din_, who had been a Turkish slave, became the founder of the "slave" dynasty (1206-1290), whose capital was _Delhi_. _Allah-ud-din_, by whom he was a.s.sa.s.sinated (1294), had a brilliant reign of twenty years, and conquered _Deccan_ and _Guzerat_. Of the _Togluk_ dynasty, which gained the throne in 1321, _Mohammed Togluk_ (1325-1351) is said to have had the "reputation of one of the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature." Desiring to remove the seat of empire to the _Deccan_, he compelled the inhabitants of _Delhi_ to leave their old home, and to make the journey of seven hundred miles.

TAMERLANE.--Revolts in India made the triumph of _Timour_ (Tamerlane) easy (1398). The Mongol leader sacked _Delhi_, and made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. A half century of anarchy followed this invasion.

LITERATURE.--On Mediaeval History: The General Subject. (See list of works on Universal History, p. 16.) GIBBON'S _Decline and Fall_, etc.; "THE STUDENTS' GIBBON" (Smith, 1 vol.); FREEMAN, _General Sketch of European History_, and _Historical Geography of Europe_; DURUY, _Histoire du Moyen Age_, etc. (11th edition, 1882); Hallam. _View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages_; Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Generale_ (vols. i.-iii.); Cunningham, _Western Civilization_ (vol. ii); Lavisse, _Political History of Europe_; Dunham, _History of Europe during the Middle Ages_ (4 vols.); BRYCE, _The Holy Roman Empire_; Putz and Arnold, _Mediaeval History_; E. A. FREEMAN, _Historical Essays_ (series 1 and 3).

Works on Church History. The Church Histories of GIESELER, NEANDER; MILMAN, _History of Latin Christianity_; ALZOG [a Roman Catholic], _Manual_, etc. (3 vols. 1874-78); Hardwick (vol. i., _Middle Ages_); _Students' History of the Church_; STANLEY'S _Eastern Church_; Fisher, _History of the Christian Church_.

On Portions of the Mediaeval Period. Froissart, _Chronicles_, etc.; CURTEIS, _History of the Roman Empire_ [395-800]; R. W. CHURCH, _The Beginning of the Middle Ages_; A. Thierry, _Histoire d'Attila_, etc., _St. Jerome_, etc., _St. Jean Chrysostome_, etc.; Church, _Life of Anselm_; MORISON, _Life and Times of St. Bernard_; Gfrorer, _Pabst Gregorius VII. u. sein Zeitalter_ (1859); Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (2 vols.); Oman, _The Dark Ages_ (476-918); TOUT, _The Empire and the Papacy_ (918-1272); Emerton, _Mediaeval Europe_ (800-1300); Pears, _The Fall of Constantinople_; Sergeant, _The Franks_; MULLINGER, _The Schools of Charles the Great, and the Restoration of Education in the 9th Century_ (1877); MONTALEMBERT, _The Monks of the West_ (7 vols.); Sartorius, _Gesch. des hanseatischen Bundes_ (3 vols.); Mombert, _Charlemagne_; Sabatier, _Life of Francis of a.s.sisi_; Ha.s.se, _Leben Anselm_; West, _Alcuin_; Hodgkin, _Theodoric the Goth_.

General Character of the Period. ROBERTSON, _A View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire_, etc. (Introduction to the History of Charles V.); Kingsley, C., _The Roman and the Teuton: a Series of Lectures_, etc.; SULLIVAN, _Historical Causes and Effects; from the Fall of the Roman Empire_ A.D. 476 to 1517; Ozanam, A. F., _History of Civilization in the Fifth Century_; LAURENT, _etudes_, etc. (vol vii.); Sir James Stephen, _Ecclesiastical Essays_; Adams, _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Scott's novels,--_Ivanhoe, The Talisman, Anne of Geierstein_: they are historically much less correct pictures than his romances which relate to Scotland.

Particular Aspects of the Period. SAVIGNY, _Gesch. d. romischen Rechts im Mittelalter_ (7 vols.); Sismondi, _Literature in the South of Europe_; Hallam, _Introduction to the Study of Literature_, etc.; Geffchen, _Church and State_ (2 vols.); GUIZOT, _History of the Origin of Representative Government in Europe_; Hecker, _Epidemics of the Middle Ages_; J. E. THOROLD ROGERS, _A History of Agriculture and Prices in England_ [1259-1793] (4 vols., 1866); Amos, _Roman Civil Law_; Jenks, _Law and Politics in the Middle Ages_; Gross, _The Guild Merchant_; Oman, _Art of War_; VIOLLET-LE-DUC, _Annals of a Fortress_; H. C. Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, History of the Inquisition_ (3 vols.), and _Superst.i.tion and Force_; LACROIX, _Works on the Middle Ages_, richly ill.u.s.trated (5 vols., London, 1880); Gautier, _Chivalry_; Cornish, _Chivalry_; BULFINCH, _Age of Chivalry, or Legends of King Arthur; Legends of Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages_ (2 vols.); c.o.x AND JONES, _Popular Romances of the Middle Ages_; Na.s.sE, _On the Agricultural Community of the Middle Ages_ (1871); Roth, _Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens_, etc.; Secretan, _Essai sur la Feodalite_; Smith, T., _English Guilds_ (1870); WILDA, _Das Gildenwesen im Mittelalter_ (1831); Seign.o.bos, _The Feudal Regime_.

Works on the Crusades. G. W. c.o.x, _The Crusades_ (1878); also, art. _Crusades_ in the _Encycl. Brit_.; Michaud, _History of the Crusades_ (3 vols.); VON SYBEL, _The History and Literature of the Crusades_; Mills, _A History of the Crusades_, etc. (2 vols.); Heeren, in _Vermischte historische Schriften_ (3 vols.); Procter's _History of the Crusades_; Gray's _Children's Crusade_; Archer and Kingsford, _The Crusades_.

For works on Mohammedanism and the Arabic kingdom, see p. 232.

The works here mentioned respecting the several countries either relate to their entire history, or to their history prior to the close of the Middle Ages.

I. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.--GREEN'S _History of the English People_ (4 vols.), and _Short History of England_ (1 vol.); the "STUDENTS' HUME"; the histories of BRIGHT, Knight, LINGARD, Hume, GUIZOT, Traill, _Social England_ (6 vols., two editions); GAIRDNER, _Outline_, etc.; Turner's _History of the Anglo-Saxons_; Palgrave's _Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth_; Palgrave's _History of Normandy and of England_; FREEMAN'S _History of the Norman Conquest_ (6 vols.), and _History of William Rufus_; Green, _The Making of England_, and _The Conquest of England_; Ramsay, _Foundations of England, Angevin Empire, Lancaster and York_; STUBBS, _The Early Plantagenets_; LONGMAN'S _History of Edward III_.; Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_; Cheyney, _Industrial and Social History of England_; Seebohm, _English Village Community_; _Life of Wickliffe_, by LECHLER, by LOSERTH, by WILSON, by Trevelyan.

Kemble's _The Saxons in England_; STUBBS'S _Const.i.tutional History of England in its Origin and Development_ (3 vols.); STUBBS'S _Select Charters_; CREASY'S _Rise and Progress of the English Const.i.tution_; THOMPSON'S _Essay on Magna Charta_; Bisset, _History of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government in England_ (1877); TASWELL-LANGMEAD'S _English Const.i.tutional History_, etc.; FREEMAN'S _Growth of the English Const.i.tution_, etc.; Bagehot, _The English Const.i.tution_; Macy, _The English Const.i.tution_.

SCOTLAND.--P. H. Brown, _History of Scotland_ (2 vols.); Miss Macarthur, _History of Scotland_ (1 vol.); E. M. Robertson, _Scotland under her Early Kings_ (2 vols.).

IRELAND.--C. G. Walpole, _The Kingdom of Ireland_; Morris, _Ireland_.

II. FRANCE.--General histories by Crowe (5 vols.); DURUY (2 vols.); GUIZOT (to 1789, 5 vols.; 1789-1848, 3 vols.); and _Outlines of the History of France_ (1 vol.); Bonnechose (to 1848); JERVIS (Ha.s.sall edition); MARTIN (17 vols.); KITCHIN, LACOMBE, MICHELET (17 vols.); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_; Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_; Grant, _The French Monarchy_; Wallon's _St. Louis et son Temps_ (2 vols.); Sismondi, _The French under the Carlovingians_ (1 vol.), _France under the Feudal System_ (1 vol.); BARANTE'S _Histoire des Ducs de Bourgogne de la Maison de Valois_, 1364-1477; WALLON'S _Jeanne d'Arc_ (2 vols.); Lowell's _Joan of Arc_; Jameson's _Life and Times of Du Guesclin_.

COULANGES' _Histoire des Inst.i.tutions politiques de l'Ancienne France_ (1877); Viollet, _Inst.i.tutions politiques de la France_ (3 vols.); Luchaire, _Manuel des Inst.i.tutions Francaises_; Esmein, _Histoire du Droit Francais_; GUIZOT'S _History of Civilization in France_ (3 vols.), and _Essai sur l'Histoire de France_; THIERRY'S _The Formation and Progress of the Third Estate in France_; Sir James Stephens's _Lectures on the History of France_.

III. GERMANY.--Henderson, _A Short History of Germany_ (2 vols.); Histories by C. T. LEWIS (founded on D. Muller), Kohlrausch; Kaufman, _Deutsche Geschichte_; Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (6 vols.); Schroder, _Lehrbuch der d. Rechtsgeschichte_; Richter, _Annalen_.

GEISEBRECHT'S _Geschichte d. deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (4 vols.); VON RAUMER'S _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit_ (6 vols.).

c.o.xe's _History of the House of Austria_; KRONES'S _Handbuch d. Geschichte Osterreichs_ (3 vols.); Marlath's _Geschichte Osterreichs_.

ARNOLD, _Ansiedelungun und Wanderungen deutscher Stamme_ (1875); also, _Deutsche Urzeit_ (1879); Ozanam, _Les Germains avant le Christianisme_ (1872); SOHM, _Die altdeutsche Reichs und Gerichtsverfa.s.sung_; MAURER'S histories of German local inst.i.tutions (the Marks, the Villages, the Cities); WAITZ, _Deutsche Verfa.s.sungsgeschichte_ (8 vols.), Wirth, _Die Geschichte der Deutschen_ (1853); SUGENHEIM, _Geschichte d. deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur_, etc.

IV. ITALY.--Cantu, _Histoire des Italiens_ (12 vols., 1859); HUNT'S _History of Italy_ (in Freeman's Series); b.u.t.t's _History of Italy_ (2 vols.); LEO'S _Geschichte von Italien_ (5 vols.); SISMONDI'S _Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du Moyen Age_ (10 vols.); SPALDING'S _Italy and the Italians_; Boscoe and Morell, _Compendium of Italian History_.

Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (2 vols.); TESTA, _History of the War of Frederic I. against the Communes of Lombardy_; HEYD, _Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter_ (2 vols.); C. HEGEL, _Gesckichte der Stadteverfa.s.sung von Italien_, etc.

Daru, _Histoire de la Republique de Venise_ (9 vols.); BROWN, _Venice: an Historical Sketch_; Ranke, _Zur Venitianer Geschichte_; Machiavelli's _History of Florence_; Napier's _Florentine History_ (6 vols.); PERRENS, _Histoire de Florence_ (4 vols.); REUMONT'S _Lorenzo the Magnificent_ (2 vols.); Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_; TROLLOPE'S _History of Florence_; Campbell's _Life of Petrarch_; GREGOROVIUS' _History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages_ (8 v., from fifth to sixteenth century); Gallenga, _History of Piedmont_ (3 vols.); Amari, _History of the War of the Sicilian Vespers_ (3 vols.); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_ (1 vol.); Oliphant, _Makers of Florence_, etc.; SYMONDS, _Sketches and Studies in Southern Europe_; TAINE, _Florence and Venice_, and _Rome and Naples_; Freeman, _Historical and Architectural Studies_ (chiefly Italian, 1 vol.).

V. RUSSIA.--Bell's _History of Russia_ (3 vols.); Howorth's _History of the Mongols_; KARAMSIN, _Histoire de l'Empire de Russie_ (11 vols.); Histories of Russia, by Kelly, Lamartine, Levesque; RAMBAUD, _History of Russia_ (2 vols., 1879); RALSTON, _Early Russian History_.

VI. POLAND.--Histories of Poland, by DUNHAM (12mo), Fletcher, JOACHIM (2 vols.), RoPELL AND CARO.

VII. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.--Lembke und Schafer, _Geschichte von Spanien_ (3 vols.); MARIANA, _The General History of Spain_; DUNHAM, _History of Spain and Portugal_; CRAWFORD, _Portugal, Old and New_; Burke, _History of Spain_ (2 vols.); Stevens's _Portugal_; TICKNOR'S _History of Spanish Literature_ (3 vols.); Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_ (introductory chapter).

VIII. SWITZERLAND.--History of Switzerland, in LARDNER'S CYCLOPEDIA (1832); Histories of Switzerland, by MORIN (5 vols.); J. Muller; Zschokke; Rochholz, _Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschichte_ (1877).

IX. SCANDINAVIA.--DUNHAM'S _History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway_ (3 vols.); Dahlmann's _Geschichte von Danemark bis zur Reformation_ (with Norway and Iceland, 3 vols.); Histories of Sweden, by Fryxell, GEIJER AND CARLSON (5 vols.); Laing's _History of Norway_; MALLET'S _Northern Antiquities_; MAURER'S _History of Iceland_; RINK'S _Danish Greenland_; Sinding's _Scandinavia_; WHEATON'S _History of the Northmen_; Worsaac's _Danes and Northmen in Great Britain_.

X. OTTOMAN TURKS.--HAMMER-PURGSTALL'S _Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches_ (10 vols.); CREASY'S _History of the Ottoman Turks_; FREEMAN, _The Ottoman Power in Europe_ (1877); ZINKEISEN, _Geschichte d. osmanisch. Reiches in Europa_ (7 vols.).

XI. CHINA, j.a.pAN, AND INDIA.--(See lists on pp. 25, 32.) d.i.c.kson, _j.a.pan_, etc. (vol. i., 1869); Griffis, _The Micado's Empire_ (1876).

XII. BIBLIOGRAPHIES.--In addition to Adams, _Manual_; Sonnenschein, _The Best Books_ and _A Reader's Guide_; Gross, _Sources and Literature of English History_ (to 1485); Gardiner and Mullinger, _English History for Students_; Monod, _Bibliographie de l'Histoire de France_; Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde, der Deutschen Geschichte_; lists in Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Generale_.

PART III. MODERN HISTORY.

_FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1453) TO THE PRESENT TIME._

INTRODUCTION.

Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediaeval, is marked by several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as appear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the Middle Ages.

1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms.

2. There has been a _gradual secularizing of politics._ Governments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control.

3. As another side of this last movement, _political unity_ in Europe has superseded _ecclesiastical unity_. The bond of union among nations, in the room of being membership in one great ecclesiastical commonwealth, became political: it came to be membership in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of public law and outlines of policy.

4. In this system, one main principle is the _balance of power_.

This means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging its bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors. We have seen the action of such a principle among the ancient states of Greece. Even in the Middle Ages, as regards Italy, the popes endeavored to keep up an equilibrium. They supported the _Norman kingdom_ in Southern Italy, or the _Lombard leagues_ in the North, as a counterpoise to the German emperors. In the sixteenth century, there were formed combinations to check the power of _Charles V._, king of Spain and emperor of Germany, and afterwards to restrain his successor on the Spanish throne, _Philip II._ In the seventeenth century, there were like combinations against _Louis XIV._ of France, and, over a century later, against the first _Napoleon_.

5. The vast influence and control of _Europe_, by discovery, colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a striking feature of modern times.

6. With the increase of _commerce_ and the growing power of the _middle cla.s.ses,_ there has arisen the "industrial age."

Interests connected with production and trade, and with the material side of civilization, have come into great prominence.

7. Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far more _diversified_ than was the case in the Middle Ages.