Our knowledge regarding the exact nature of these indefinite faults is as yet too inadequate to enable many of these undesirable conditions to be traced to their proper source; but in many cases the taints observed in a factory are due to the abnormal development of certain bacteria, capable of evolving unpleasant or even putrid odors. Most of them are seeded in the milk before it comes to the factory and are due to careless manipulation of the milk while it is still on the farm. Others gain access to the milk in the factory, owing to unclean conditions of one sort or another. Sometimes the cheese-maker is able to overcome these taints by vigorous treatment, but often they pa.s.s on into the cheese, only to detract from the market value of the product. Most frequently these "off" flavors appear in cheese that are cured at too high temperatures, say above 65 F.

~"Ga.s.sy" fermentations in cheese.~ One of the worst and at the same time most common troubles in cheese-making is where the cheese undergoes a fermentation marked by the evolution of gas. The presence of gas is recognized by the appearance either of spherical or lens-shaped holes of various sizes in the green cheese; often they appear in the curd before it is put to press. Usually in this condition the curds look as if they had been punctured with a pin, and are known as "pin holey" curds. Where the gas holes are larger, they are known as "Swiss holes" from their resemblance to the normal holes in the Swiss product. If the development of gas is abundant, these holes are restricted in size. Often the formation of gas may be so intense as to cause the curds to float on the surface of the whey before they are removed. Such curds are known as "floaters" or "bloaters."

If "ga.s.sy" curds are put to press, the abnormal fermentation may continue. The further production of gas causes the green cheese to "huff" or swell, until it may be considerably distorted as in Fig. 33.

In such cases the texture of the cheese is greatly injured, and the flavor is generally impaired.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 33. Cheese made from ga.s.sy milk.]

Such abnormal changes may occur at any season of the year, but the trouble is most common in summer, especially in the latter part.

This defect is less likely to occur in cheese that is well cheddared than in sweet curd cheese. When acidity is produced, these ga.s.sy fermentations are checked, and in good cheddar the body is so close and firm as not readily to permit of gaseous changes.

In Swiss cheese, which is essentially a sweet curd cheese, these fermentations are very troublesome. Where large holes are formed in abundance (blahen), the trouble reaches its maximum. If the gas holes are very numerous and therefore small it is called a "nissler."

Sometimes the normal "eyes" are even wanting when it is said to be "blind" or a "glasler."

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 34. Block Swiss cheese showing "ga.s.sy"

fermentation.]

One method of procedure which is likely to cause trouble in Swiss factories is often produced by the use of sour, fermented whey in which to soak the natural rennets. Freudenreich and Steinegger[209] have shown that a much more uniform quality of cheese can be made with rennet extract if it is prepared with a starter made from a pure lactic ferment.

The cause of the difficulty has long been charged to various sources, such as a lack of aeration, improper feeding, retention of animal gases, etc., but in all these cases it was nothing more than a surmise. Very often the milk does not betray any visible symptom of fermentation when received, and the trouble is not to be recognized until the process of cheese-making is well advanced.

Studies from a biological standpoint have, however, thrown much light on this troublesome problem; and it is now known that the formation of gas, either in the curd or after it has been put to press, is due entirely to the breaking down of certain elements, such as the sugar of milk, due to the influence of various living germs. This trouble is, then, a type fermentation, and is, therefore, much more widely distributed than it would be if it was caused by a single specific organism. These gas-producing organisms are to be found, sparingly at least, in almost all milks, but are normally held in check by the ordinary lactic species. Among them are a large number of the bacteria, although yeasts and allied germs are often present and are likewise able to set up fermentative changes of this sort. In these cases the milk-sugar is decomposed in such a way as to give off CO_{2} and H, and in some cases, alcohol. Russell and Hastings[210] found a lactose-splitting yeast in a severe outbreak of ga.s.sy cheese in a Swiss factory. In this case the gas did not develop until the cheese were a few weeks old. In severe cases the cheese actually cracked to pieces.

According to Guillebeau, a close relation exists between those germs that are able to produce an infectious inflammation (mast.i.tis) in the udder of the cow and some forms capable of gas evolution.

If pure cultures of these gas-producing bacteria are added to perfectly sweet milk, it is possible to artificially produce the conditions in cheese that so frequently appear in practice.

~Treatment of "pin-holey" curds.~ When this type of fermentation appears during the manufacture of the cheese, the maker can control it in part within certain limits. These methods of treatment are, as a rule, purely mechanical, as when the curds are piled and turned, and subsequently ground in a curd mill. After the gas has been forced out, the curds are then put to press and the whole mats into a compact ma.s.s.

Another method of treatment based upon bacteriological principles is the addition of a starter to induce the formation of acid. Where acid is developed as a result of the growth of the lactic-acid bacteria, the gas-producing species do not readily thrive. Another reason why acid aids in repressing the development of gas is that the curd particles are partially softened or digested by the action of the acid. This causes them to mat together more closely, and there is not left in the cheese the irregular mechanical openings in which the developing gas may find lodgment.

Another method that is also useful with these curds is to employ salt.

This represses gaseous fermentations, and the use of more salt than usual in making the cheese will very often restrain the production of gas. Tendency to form gas in Edam cheese is controlled by the addition of a starter prepared from slimy whey (lange wei) which is caused by the development of an acid-forming organism.

Some have recommended the custom of washing the curds to remove the whey and the gas-producing bacteria contained therein. Care must be taken not to carry this too far, for the removal of the sugar permits taint-producing organisms to thrive.[211]

The temperature at which the cheese is cured also materially affects the development of gas. At high curing temperatures, gas-producing organisms develop rapidly; therefore more trouble is experienced in summer than at other seasons.

If milks which are p.r.o.ne to undergo "ga.s.sy" development are excluded from the general supply, it would be possible to eliminate the source of the entire trouble. To aid in the early recognition of such milks that are not apparently affected when brought to the factory, fermentation or curd tests (p. 76) are of great value. The use of this test in the hands of the factory operator often enables him to detect the exact source of the trouble, which may frequently be confined to the milk delivered by a single patron.

~"Fruity" or "sweet" flavor.~ Not infrequently the product of a factory may acquire during the process of ripening what is known as a "sweet" or "fruity" flavor. This flavor resembles the odor of fermented fruit or the bouquet of certain kinds of wine. It has been noted in widely different sections of the country and its presence bears no relation to the other qualities of the cheese. The cause of this trouble has recently been traced[212] to the presence of various kinds of yeasts.

Ordinarily yeasts are rarely present in good cheese, but in cheese affected with this trouble they abound. The addition of starters made from yeast cultures resulted in the production of the undesirable condition.

~Mottled cheese.~ The color of cheese is sometimes cut to that extent that the cheese presents a wavy or mottled appearance. This condition is apt to appear if the ripening temperature is somewhat high, or larger quant.i.ties of rennet used than usual. The cause of the defect is obscure, but it has been demonstrated that the same is communicable if a starter is made by grating some of this mottled cheese into milk. The bacteriology of the trouble has not yet been worked out, but the defect is undoubtedly due to an organism that is able to grow in the ripening cheese. It has been claimed that the use of a pure lactic ferment as a starter enables one to overcome this defect.

~Bitter cheese.~ Bitter flavors are sometimes developed in cheese especially where the ripening process is carried on at a low temperature in the presence of an excess of moisture for a considerable length of time.

Guillebeau[213] isolated several forms from Emmenthaler cheese which he connected with udder inflammation that were able to produce a bitter substance in cheese.

Von Freudenreich[214] has described a new form _Micrococcus casei amari_ (micrococcus of bitter cheese) that was found in a sample of bitter cheese. This germ is closely related to Conn's micrococcus of bitter milk. It develops lactic acid rapidly, coagulating the milk and producing an intensely bitter taste in the course of one to three days.

When milk infected with this organism is made into cheese, there is formed in a few days a decomposition product that imparts a marked bitter flavor to the cheese.

Harrison[215] has recently found a yeast that grows in the milk and also in the cheese which produces an undesirable bitter change.

It is peculiar that some of the organisms that are able to produce bitter products in milk do not retain this property when the milk is worked up into cheese.

~Putrid or rotten cheese.~ Sometimes cheese undergoes a putrefactive decomposition in which the texture is profoundly modified and various foul smelling gases are evolved. These often begin on the exterior as small circ.u.mscribed spots that slowly extend into the cheese, changing the casein into a soft slimy ma.s.s. Then, again, the interior of the cheese undergoes this slimy decomposition. The soft varieties are more p.r.o.ne toward this fermentation than the hard, although the firm cheeses are by no means exempt from the trouble. The "Verlaufen" or "running" of limburger cheese is a fermentation allied to this. It is where the inside of the cheese breaks down into a soft semi-fluid ma.s.s. In severe cases, the rind may even be ruptured, in which case the whole interior of the cheese flows out as a thick slimy ma.s.s, having sometimes a putrid odor. The conditions favoring this putrid decomposition are usually a.s.sociated with an excess of moisture, and an abnormally low ripening temperature.

~Rusty spot.~ This name is applied to the development of small yellowish-red or orange spots that are formed sometimes throughout the whole ma.s.s of cheddar cheese. A close inspection shows the colored points to be located along the edges of the curd particles. According to Harding,[216] this trouble is most common in spring and fall. The cause of the difficulty has been traced by Connell[217] to the development of a chromogenic bacterium, _Bacillus rudensis_. The organism can be most readily isolated on a potato surface rather than with the usual isolating media, agar or gelatin.

~Other pigment changes.~ Occasionally, with the hard type of cheese, but more frequently with the softer foreign varieties, various abnormal conditions arise that are marked by the production of different pigments in or on the cheese. More frequently these are merely superficial and affect only the outer layers of the cheese. Generally they are attributable to the development of certain chromogenic organisms (bacteria, molds and yeasts), although occasionally due to other causes, as in the case of a blue discoloration sometimes noted in foreign cheese made in copper kettles.[218]

De Vries[219] has described a blue condition that is found in Edam cheese. It appears first as a small blue spot on the inside, increasing rapidly in size until the whole ma.s.s is affected. This defect he was able to show was produced by a pigment-forming organism, _B.

cyaneo-fuscus_. By the use of slimy whey (lange wei) this abnormal change was controlled.

~Moldy cheese.~ With many varieties of cheese, especially some of the foreign types, the presence of mold on the exterior is not regarded as detrimental; in fact a limited development is much desired. In hard rennet cheese as cheddar or Swiss, the market demands a product free from mold, although it should be said that this condition is imposed by the desire to secure a good-looking cheese rather than any injury in flavor that the mold causes. Mold spores are so widely distributed that, if proper temperature and moisture conditions prevail, these spores will always develop. At temperatures in the neighborhood of 40 F. and below, mold growth is exceedingly slow, and often fructification does not occur, the only evidence of the mold being the white, felt-like covering that is made up of the vegetating filaments. The use of paraffin has been suggested as a means of overcoming this growth, the cheese being dipped at an early stage into melted paraffin. Recent experiments have shown that "off" flavors sometimes develop where cheese are paraffined directly from the press. If paraffin is too hard, it has a tendency to crack and separate from the rind, thus allowing molds to develop beneath the paraffin coat, where the conditions are ideal as to moisture, for evaporation is excluded and the air consequently saturated. The use of formalin (2% solution) has been suggested as a wash for the outside of the cheese. This substance or sulfur is also applied in a gaseous form. Double bandaging is also resorted to as a means of making the cheese more presentable through the removal of the outer bandage.

The nature of these molds has not been thoroughly studied as yet. The ordinary blue-green bread mold, _Penicillium glauc.u.m_, is most frequently found, but there are numerous other forms that appear, especially at low temperatures.

~Poisonous cheese.~ Cases of acute poisoning arising from the ingestion of cheese are reported from time to time. Vaughan has succeeded in showing that this condition is due to the formation of a highly poisonous alkaloid which he has isolated, and which he calls _tyrotoxicon_.[220]

This poisonous ptomaine has also been demonstrated in milk and other milk products, and is undoubtedly due to the development of various putrefactive bacteria that find their way into the milk. It seems quite probable that the development of these toxic organisms can also go on in the cheese after it is taken from the press.

~Prevention or cheese defects.~ The defective conditions previously referred to can rarely be overcome in cheese so as to improve the affected product, for they only become manifest in most cases during the later stages of the curing process. The only remedy against future loss is to recognize the conditions that are apt to prevail during the occurrence of an outbreak and see that the cheese are handled in such a way as to prevent a recurrence of the difficulty.

Many abnormal and undesirable results are incident to the manufacture of the product, such as "sour" or "mealy" cheese, conditions due to the development of too much acid in the milk or too high a "cook." These are under the direct control of the maker and for them he alone is responsible. The development of taints due to the growth of unwelcome bacteria that have gained access to the milk while it is yet on the farm are generally beyond the control of the cheese maker, unless they are so p.r.o.nounced as to appear during the handling of the curds. If this does occur he is sometimes able, through the intervention of a starter or by varying some detail in making, to handle the milk in such a way as to minimize the trouble, but rarely is he able to eliminate it entirely.

One of the most strenuous duties which the maker must perform at all times is to point out to his patrons the absolute necessity of their handling the milk in such a way as to prevent the introduction of organisms of a baleful type.

FOOTNOTES:

[178] Russell, 13 Rept. Wis. Expt. Stat., 1896, p. 112; Campbell, Trans.

High. & Agr. Soc. Scotland, 5 ser., 1898, 10:181.

[179] Winkler, Milch Zeit. (Hildesheim), Nov. 24, 1900.

[180] Campbell, No. Brit., Agric., May 12, 1897.

[181] Weigmann, Milch Zeit., No. 50, 1889.

[182] Klein, Milch Zeit. (Hildesheim), No. 17, 1900.

[183] Adametz, Landw. Jahr., 18:256.

[184] Van Slyke and Hart, Bull. 214, N. Y. Expt. Stat., July 1902.

[185] Milch Zeit., 1898, No. 49.