The Swiss Republic.--An example of a federal republic is the government of Switzerland. Here the cantons correspond to our States, and each canton has control over its own local affairs, without interference from the federal government. The chief features of the French and the Swiss governments are indicated in the accompanying outline:[62]

[Footnote 62: Among the South American republics, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentine Republic are federal in nature, like the United States and Switzerland.]

UNITED STATES SWITZERLAND FRANCE

_Congress Federal a.s.sembly The Chambers_ _ Senate State Council Senate_ Two members from Two members from 300 members elected each state each canton by an electoral college Six years in each department

_House of National Council Chamber of Deputies_ _Representatives_ 433 members elected 147 members elected 591 deputies elected by people by people by people Two years Three years Four years

_President President President_ Elected by electors, Elected by Federal Elected by National i.e., by the a.s.sembly a.s.sembly; i.e.

people of the States One year Senate and Chamber Four years of Deputies in joint session Seven years

_Cabinet Federal Council Ministry_ Nine members appointed Seven members Twelve members appointed by President elected by Federal by President and Senate a.s.sembly

Const.i.tutional Monarchies--Monarchies are cla.s.sified as (1) const.i.tutional and (2) absolute. In const.i.tutional monarchies the ruler holds his position by heredity, but there exists also a const.i.tution, which defines the distribution of powers among the branches that compose the government and fixes the limits of authority vested in each. The British const.i.tution is partly written, as found in the great historical doc.u.ments of English history, such as Magna Charta (1215), the Pet.i.tion of Right (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689);[63] and partly unwritten, consisting of precedents and customs which are recognized as authoritative. The const.i.tutions of the other monarchies of Europe were made during the nineteenth century, and consequently they are younger than that of the United States.

[Footnote 63: Compare the "Bill of Rights" in our Const.i.tution; see pp.

256-260.]

In all the const.i.tutional monarchies we find legislative bodies similar to our Congress. In every case the lower house is elected by the voters;[64] in England, the Austrian Empire, Italy, and Spain a number of the members of the upper house hold their position by hereditary right. In respect to legislation, therefore, the const.i.tutional monarchies are all more or less republican in principle; that is, they all recognize the supreme authority of the people acting through their representatives.

[Footnote 64: Property qualifications for suffrage are common in European countries.]

An absolute monarchy is one in which the authority of the ruler is not held in check by a const.i.tution or by a body of men elected by the people. No civilized country now has this form of government. Until recently there existed in Europe two absolute monarchies--Russia and Turkey.

The Cabinet System of Government.--In the relations existing between their legislative and executive departments, the European governments differ considerably from that of the United States. In our government we find, in theory at least, that these departments are separated; in the European governments there is a close relation of the legislative and executive branches, through some form of "cabinet responsibility." This "cabinet system" of government is found in the republics as well as in the const.i.tutional monarchies of Europe, and in the self-governing British possessions, such as Canada and the Australian colonies.[67] The difference between the congressional and the cabinet systems is greater in appearance than in reality; for in the United States the President and his Cabinet exert considerable influence upon legislation.

ENGLAND GERMANY

Monarch--hereditary in the Emperor--hereditary line fixed by Parliament King of Prussia

_Cabinet_ _Ministry_ Nineteen members[65] chosen by Eight ministers, Chancellor at the Prime minister the head, appointed by the Emperor

_Parliament_ _Parliament_ Limit of term, seven years Term, five years

_House of Lords_ _Bundesrath or General Council_ 586 members, holding seats 58 members appointed by the (1) by heredity, (2) by German States appointment by crown, (3) by election[66]

_House of Commons_ _Reichstag or Diet of the Realm_ 670 members elected by the 397 members elected by the people of England, Scotland, people and Ireland

[Footnote 65: The number of members in the ministries of England and Germany varies.]

[Footnote 66: Irish peers are elected for life, and Scottish peers are elected for the duration of a Parliament.]

[Footnote 67: This system finds its best ill.u.s.tration in the English government, of which a brief description will be found in "Government in State and Nation," pp. 157-160. For references, see questions 14 and 15, p. 161.]

The Form and the Spirit of Government.--The study of other governments and the comparison of them with our own will teach us that the virtue of a government resides, not in its framework, but in its spirit. A government may be monarchical in form and republican in its practical workings. In England, and in others of the European monarchies, the will of the people is the law of the land. On the other hand, a government may be republican in form, and very unrepublican in its methods of operation. There are cities and States in our country where one man, the political boss, or a group of men, the political machine, dictates the course of legislation and controls the administration of the law. Here we find, in reality, not republican governments, but despotisms or oligarchies.

The final test of a government is found in the responsiveness of the governing authorities to the will of the majority of the people.

Wherever republican inst.i.tutions are found, whether in republics or in monarchies, the people may rule if they will. Monarchical and aristocratic inst.i.tutions do not in our time stand long in opposition to a determined public opinion; and, on the other hand, a framework of republican inst.i.tutions will not insure the execution of the popular will. This can only be secured where high-minded citizens are vigilant in the performance of their political duties.

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES.

1. The relations of nations are governed by the rules of international law. Government in State and Nation, 301-303.

2. What progress has been made in the direction of settling disputes between nations by arbitration instead of by war? Government in State and Nation, 304-306.

APPENDIX A.

CONSt.i.tUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSt.i.tUTION for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I.

SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives.

SECT. II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be ent.i.tled to choose three, Ma.s.sachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECT. III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. (See Amendment XVII.)

2. Immediately after they shall be a.s.sembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three cla.s.ses.

The seats of the Senators of the first cla.s.s shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second cla.s.s at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third cla.s.s at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. (See Amendment XVII.)

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President _pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.