Techniques for Aerating Cakes Fat-sugar aeration: Sugar beaten into b.u.t.ter or shortening; other ingredients then folded in Pound cake, French quatre quarts, quatre quarts, American b.u.t.ter and layer cakes, fruit cake American b.u.t.ter and layer cakes, fruit cake Egg-sugar aeration: Sugar beaten with whole eggs, or separated yolks or whites; other ingredients then folded in Whole eggs: Genoise GenoiseYolks and whites aerated separately: French biscuit, biscuit, Black Forest cake Black Forest cakeYolks only: Sponge cakeWhites only: Angel food cake; chiffon cake; flourless meringue and dacquoise dacquoise All-ingredients aeration: Flour, eggs, sugar, shortening all beaten together Commercial cake mixes No aeration: Ingredients stirred together with minimal incorporation of air Dissolved-sugar cakes: pain d'epices, pain d'epices, spice cake spice cake Mixing Cake Batters In cake making, the mixing step doesn't just combine the ingredients into a h.o.m.ogeneous batter: it has the critical purpose of incorporating air bubbles into the batter, and thereby strongly influencing the final texture of the cake. The various ways of aerating the batter help define families of cakes (see box, p. 557). They involve beating the sugar and/or the flour into the fat, the eggs, or all the liquid ingredients. The fine solid particles carry tiny air pockets on their surfaces, and the particles and beating utensils carry those pockets into the fat or liquid. Flour is often added only after the foam is formed, and then by gently folding it in, not beating, to avoid popping a large fraction of the bubbles, and to avoid developing gluten. (For folding as a mixing technique, see p. 112.) Mixing the dry flour and fat together also prevents the gluten proteins from bonding strongly to each other. In cake making, the mixing step doesn't just combine the ingredients into a h.o.m.ogeneous batter: it has the critical purpose of incorporating air bubbles into the batter, and thereby strongly influencing the final texture of the cake. The various ways of aerating the batter help define families of cakes (see box, p. 557). They involve beating the sugar and/or the flour into the fat, the eggs, or all the liquid ingredients. The fine solid particles carry tiny air pockets on their surfaces, and the particles and beating utensils carry those pockets into the fat or liquid. Flour is often added only after the foam is formed, and then by gently folding it in, not beating, to avoid popping a large fraction of the bubbles, and to avoid developing gluten. (For folding as a mixing technique, see p. 112.) Mixing the dry flour and fat together also prevents the gluten proteins from bonding strongly to each other.

Preleavened shortening and electric mixers have helped to turn cake making into a far less onerous task than it once was, but the mixing stage can still take 15 minutes or more.

Bakers often modify or combine elements of these techniques. In the "pastry-blend" method, the flour, sometimes with the sugar, is creamed with the fat, then the liquid ingredients are added and mixed long enough to augment the initial aeration.

Another alternative is a combination of the fat and egg aerations: some of the sugar is used to aerate the fat, some the eggs, and the two foams are then combined.

Baking Cakes Cake baking can be divided into three stages: expansion, setting, and browning. During the first stage, the batter expands to its full volume. As the batter temperature rises, the gases in the air cells expand, chemical leavening releases carbon dioxide, and beginning around 140F/60C, water vapor begins to form and expand the air cells even further. During the second stage of cake baking, the risen batter is set into its permanent shape by the oven heat. Beginning around 180F/80C, the egg proteins coagulate, and starch granules absorb water, swell, and gelate. The actual setting temperature depends strongly on the proportion of sugar, which delays both protein coagulation and starch swelling; in a high-ratio cake, the starch may not gelate until close to 212F/100C. In the last stage, batter solidification is completed, flavor-enhancing browning reactions take place in the now-dried surface, and the cake often shrinks slightly, an indication that it should be taken out of the oven. Another test of doneness is to probe the center with a toothpick or wire cake tester, which should come out clean of any batter or crumb particles. Cake baking can be divided into three stages: expansion, setting, and browning. During the first stage, the batter expands to its full volume. As the batter temperature rises, the gases in the air cells expand, chemical leavening releases carbon dioxide, and beginning around 140F/60C, water vapor begins to form and expand the air cells even further. During the second stage of cake baking, the risen batter is set into its permanent shape by the oven heat. Beginning around 180F/80C, the egg proteins coagulate, and starch granules absorb water, swell, and gelate. The actual setting temperature depends strongly on the proportion of sugar, which delays both protein coagulation and starch swelling; in a high-ratio cake, the starch may not gelate until close to 212F/100C. In the last stage, batter solidification is completed, flavor-enhancing browning reactions take place in the now-dried surface, and the cake often shrinks slightly, an indication that it should be taken out of the oven. Another test of doneness is to probe the center with a toothpick or wire cake tester, which should come out clean of any batter or crumb particles.

Baking a cake. Left: Left: A typical cake batter includes starch granules from flour, egg proteins that coagulate when heated, and gas bubbles incorporated during mixing, all swimming in a syrup of water and sugar. (Most cakes include some form of fat, which is not shown here for the sake of clarity.) A typical cake batter includes starch granules from flour, egg proteins that coagulate when heated, and gas bubbles incorporated during mixing, all swimming in a syrup of water and sugar. (Most cakes include some form of fat, which is not shown here for the sake of clarity.) Center: Center: When the mix is heated, the gas bubbles expand, causing the mix to rise. At the same time, the proteins begin to unfold and the starch granules begin to absorb water and swell. When the mix is heated, the gas bubbles expand, causing the mix to rise. At the same time, the proteins begin to unfold and the starch granules begin to absorb water and swell. Right: Right: At the end of baking, the fluid batter has set into a porous solid, thanks to the continued swelling and gelation of the starch granules and the coagulation of the egg proteins. At the end of baking, the fluid batter has set into a porous solid, thanks to the continued swelling and gelation of the starch granules and the coagulation of the egg proteins.

Cakes are generally baked at moderate oven temperatures, 350 to 375F/ 175190C. Below this range, the batter sets slowly, expanding gas cells can coalesce to produce a coa.r.s.e, heavy texture, and the upper surface sinks. Above this range, the outer portions of the batter set before the inside has finished expanding, which produces a peaked, volcano-like surface, and the surface browns excessively.

Cake Pans By affecting the rate and distribution of heating, cake pans can have an important influence on their contents. The ideal pan size is that which matches the final volume of the cake, which is usually 50100% greater than the initial batter volume. Doughnut-shaped tube pans, with the hole at their center, provide a greater surface area and speed the penetration of heat into the batter. Bright surfaces reflect radiant heat, transmit heat poorly to the food they contain, and slow the baking process. A dull metal pan or a gla.s.s one (which also transmits radiant heat well) will cook a cake as much as 20% faster than a shiny pan, while a black surface tends to absorb heat quickly and cause rapid surface browning. Recent innovations in nonmetal baking containers include flexible silicone molds and paper molds, larger and stiffer and more elegant versions of m.u.f.fin and cupcake papers. By affecting the rate and distribution of heating, cake pans can have an important influence on their contents. The ideal pan size is that which matches the final volume of the cake, which is usually 50100% greater than the initial batter volume. Doughnut-shaped tube pans, with the hole at their center, provide a greater surface area and speed the penetration of heat into the batter. Bright surfaces reflect radiant heat, transmit heat poorly to the food they contain, and slow the baking process. A dull metal pan or a gla.s.s one (which also transmits radiant heat well) will cook a cake as much as 20% faster than a shiny pan, while a black surface tends to absorb heat quickly and cause rapid surface browning. Recent innovations in nonmetal baking containers include flexible silicone molds and paper molds, larger and stiffer and more elegant versions of m.u.f.fin and cupcake papers.

Baking Cakes at High Alt.i.tudesCake recipes that work well at sea level can produce dry, dense disasters in kitchens at high alt.i.tudes. The reason for this is that the low air pressure in the mountains allows water to boil at a lower temperature than the 212F/100C characteristic of sea level. The drops in pressure and boiling point have several effects on a cake in the oven. The batter starts to lose moisture at lower temperatures, and dries out more rapidly. The air bubbles and leavening expand faster at temperatures below the setting temperature, and the protein and starch set and stabilize that structure slowly, because the batter temperature doesn't get as hot. So a cake baked in the mountains tends to end up dry, coa.r.s.e, and flat.A cake recipe developed at sea level must be adjusted in order for it to work at several thousand feet. The loss of moisture can be compensated for by the addition of extra liquid. The overexpansion of the gas cells can be reduced by reducing the amount of leavening. And the structure-stabilizing elements can be set earlier by reducing the levels of sugar and fat and increasing the eggs and/or flour. Increasing the oven temperature also speeds the protein coagulation and starch gelation that set the structure.

Cooling and Storing Cakes Most cakes require a cooling period before they're removed from their pans or otherwise handled. Their structures are quite delicate when still hot, but become firm as the starch molecules begin to settle back into close, orderly a.s.sociations with each other. Pound and b.u.t.ter cakes are fairly robust, their structure coming mainly from gelated starch, and can be removed from their pans after just 1020 minutes. The sweeter eggaerated cakes are held up largely by the coagulated egg proteins, which form a more gas-tight film around the gas cells than starch does, and therefore shrink as the gas within cools and contracts. The result can be a collapsed cake. To avoid this, angel, sponge, and chiffon cakes are cooked in tube pans that can be inverted and suspended over a bottle to cool. Gravity keeps the cake structure stretched to its maximum volume while the walls of the gas cells firm and develop cracks that allow the pressure inside and outside the cells to equalize. Most cakes require a cooling period before they're removed from their pans or otherwise handled. Their structures are quite delicate when still hot, but become firm as the starch molecules begin to settle back into close, orderly a.s.sociations with each other. Pound and b.u.t.ter cakes are fairly robust, their structure coming mainly from gelated starch, and can be removed from their pans after just 1020 minutes. The sweeter eggaerated cakes are held up largely by the coagulated egg proteins, which form a more gas-tight film around the gas cells than starch does, and therefore shrink as the gas within cools and contracts. The result can be a collapsed cake. To avoid this, angel, sponge, and chiffon cakes are cooked in tube pans that can be inverted and suspended over a bottle to cool. Gravity keeps the cake structure stretched to its maximum volume while the walls of the gas cells firm and develop cracks that allow the pressure inside and outside the cells to equalize.

Cakes keep for several days at room temperature, and they can be refrigerated or frozen. They stale more slowly than bread, thanks to the presence of emulsifiers and their high proportions of moisture, fat, and moisture-retaining sugar.

Pastries Pastries bear little family resemblance to cakes or breads or pastas. They're a very different expression of the nature of the wheat grain. In making other dough and batter foods, we use water to fuse the particles of wheat flour into an integrated ma.s.s of gluten and starch granules, and further knit that ma.s.s together with cooking. By contrast, pastry is an expression of the fragmentary, discontinuous, particulate qualities of wheat flour. We use just enough water to make a cohesive dough from the flour, and work in large amounts of fat to coat and separate flour particles and dough regions from each other. Cooking gelates half or less of the water-deprived starch, and produces a dry ma.s.s that readily crumbles or flakes in the mouth, releasing the fat's complementary moist richness.

Many pastries are not prepared and eaten on their own as other dough and batter foods are. Instead they serve as a contrasting container for a moist filling, whether savory (quiche, pate, meat pies, vegetable tarts) or sweet (fruit pies and tarts, creams, custards). The container may be open, as in tarts and open-faced pies, a closed double-crust pie, or fully enclosed turnovers - samosas, empanadas, pasties, pierogi, piroshki. We also use the term "pastry" for what are essentially sweet breads whose structure is divided by layers of fat. Croissants and Danish pastries are really bread-pastry hybrids.

Varieties of Pastry in Elizabethan TimesBeginning in the Middle Ages, one of the primary purposes of pastry was to contain and help preserve preparations of meat. Meat brought to a simmer inside a thick, durable crust would essentially be pasteurized and protected against contamination by microbes in the air, so in a cool place it would keep for many days. Other dishes to be eaten freshly baked would be made with a more delicate pastry. As Gervase Markham wrote around 1615 in The English Housewife The English Housewife,our English housewife must be skilful in pastry, and know how and in what manner to bake all sorts of meat, and what paste is fit for every meat, and how to handle and compound such pastes.

Pastry making flowered in the Mediterranean region in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, when puff and cream puff pastries first appeared. By the time of La Varenne in the 17th century, both crumbly and puff pastries were standard preparations. The bread-pastry hybrids are a more recent invention from the late 19th and 20th centuries.

Pastry Styles There are several different styles of pastry, each with a different texture that is created by the kinds of particles into which they come apart when chewed.

Crumbly pastries - short pastry, pate brisee - come apart into small, irregular particles. - short pastry, pate brisee - come apart into small, irregular particles.

Flaky pastries - American pie crusts - come apart in small, irregular, thin flakes. - American pie crusts - come apart in small, irregular, thin flakes.

Laminated pastries - puff pastry, phyllo, strudel - are constructed of large, separate, very thin layers that shatter in the mouth into small, delicate shards. - puff pastry, phyllo, strudel - are constructed of large, separate, very thin layers that shatter in the mouth into small, delicate shards.

Laminated breads - croissants, Danish pastries - combine the layering of the laminated pastries with the soft chewiness of bread. - croissants, Danish pastries - combine the layering of the laminated pastries with the soft chewiness of bread.

These varied structures and textures depend on two key elements: the way the fat is incorporated into the dough, and the development of the flour gluten. Pastry makers work fat in so that it either isolates very small dough particles from each other, isolates larger ma.s.ses or even whole sheets of dough from each other, or both. And pastry cooks carefully control gluten development to avoid making a dough that's hard to shape and a pastry that's tough and chewy instead of tender and delicate.

Pastry Ingredients Flours Pastries are made from several different kinds of flour. A crumbly texture, which requires minimal gluten development, is best obtained with a pastry flour moderately low in protein; some protein is necessary to provide continuity in the dough particles, or the pastry comes out chalky rather than crumbly. Flakiness and the laminated structure of puff pastry depend on controlled gluten development, and can be achieved with pastry flour or with flour of a higher protein content, the equivalent of U.S. national all-purpose flours (1112%). Highly stretched strudel and phyllo can benefit from the very high protein content of bread flours and the strong gluten they form. Pastries are made from several different kinds of flour. A crumbly texture, which requires minimal gluten development, is best obtained with a pastry flour moderately low in protein; some protein is necessary to provide continuity in the dough particles, or the pastry comes out chalky rather than crumbly. Flakiness and the laminated structure of puff pastry depend on controlled gluten development, and can be achieved with pastry flour or with flour of a higher protein content, the equivalent of U.S. national all-purpose flours (1112%). Highly stretched strudel and phyllo can benefit from the very high protein content of bread flours and the strong gluten they form.

Pastry structures (uncooked doughs shown at bottom; cooked pastries at top). The key to pastry structure is the distribution of the fat, here shown as a light layer surrounding darker ma.s.ses of dough. Left: Left: In crumbly pastries, fat coats and separates small particles of dough. In crumbly pastries, fat coats and separates small particles of dough. Center: Center: In flaky pastries, fat coats and separates flattened pieces of dough. In flaky pastries, fat coats and separates flattened pieces of dough. Right: Right: In laminated pastries, fat coats and separates extended, thin sheets of dough. The sheets in laminated pastries are so light that cooking steams them apart into a light, airy structure. In laminated pastries, fat coats and separates extended, thin sheets of dough. The sheets in laminated pastries are so light that cooking steams them apart into a light, airy structure.

Fats Much of the flavor of pastry - and much of the pleasure - comes from its fat, which may be a third or more of its weight. But pastry makers often choose a fat that has little or no flavor. This is because the fat must have the necessary consistency for producing the desired texture. Broadly speaking, any fat or oil can be worked finely into flour to make crumbly pastry, while flaky and laminated pastries require fats that are solid but malleable at cool room temperature: namely b.u.t.ter, lard, or vegetable shortening. Of these, shortenings are the easiest to work with, and produce the best textures. Much of the flavor of pastry - and much of the pleasure - comes from its fat, which may be a third or more of its weight. But pastry makers often choose a fat that has little or no flavor. This is because the fat must have the necessary consistency for producing the desired texture. Broadly speaking, any fat or oil can be worked finely into flour to make crumbly pastry, while flaky and laminated pastries require fats that are solid but malleable at cool room temperature: namely b.u.t.ter, lard, or vegetable shortening. Of these, shortenings are the easiest to work with, and produce the best textures.

Fat Consistency: b.u.t.ter and Lard Are Demanding At any given temperature, solid fats have different consistencies that depend on what fraction of their molecules is in solid crystals, and what fraction is liquid. Above about 25% solids, fat is too hard and brittle to roll into an even layer. Below about 15% solids, fat is too soft to work; it sticks to the dough, doesn't hold its shape, and leaks liquid oil. The ideal fat for flaky and laminated pastries is therefore one that has between 15 and 25% solids at kitchen temperature, and at the temperatures that the pastry dough reaches as it's mixed and formed. It turns out that b.u.t.ter has the right consistency for making pastry in a relatively narrow temperature range, between 58 and 68F/1520C. Lard is properly workable at only slightly warmer temperatures, up to 75F/25C. Our flavorful natural fats easily get too soft in the kitchen to make good pastry. This is why pastry makers often prechill ingredients and utensils, work on a cold marble surface that keeps the ingredients cool during the mixing and rolling out, and value a.s.sistants with const.i.tutionally cold hands. At any given temperature, solid fats have different consistencies that depend on what fraction of their molecules is in solid crystals, and what fraction is liquid. Above about 25% solids, fat is too hard and brittle to roll into an even layer. Below about 15% solids, fat is too soft to work; it sticks to the dough, doesn't hold its shape, and leaks liquid oil. The ideal fat for flaky and laminated pastries is therefore one that has between 15 and 25% solids at kitchen temperature, and at the temperatures that the pastry dough reaches as it's mixed and formed. It turns out that b.u.t.ter has the right consistency for making pastry in a relatively narrow temperature range, between 58 and 68F/1520C. Lard is properly workable at only slightly warmer temperatures, up to 75F/25C. Our flavorful natural fats easily get too soft in the kitchen to make good pastry. This is why pastry makers often prechill ingredients and utensils, work on a cold marble surface that keeps the ingredients cool during the mixing and rolling out, and value a.s.sistants with const.i.tutionally cold hands.

Fat Consistency: Shortenings Are Forgiving Manufacturers of vegetable shortenings control the consistency of their products by controlling how much of the base oil's unsaturated fat is hydrogenated (p. 801). Standard cake shortening has the desirable 1525% solids over a temperature range triple that of b.u.t.ter, from 53 to 85F/1230C. It's therefore much easier to make flaky pastry with shortening than with b.u.t.ter. Because laminated pastries and breads are especially tricky to make, professionals and manufacturers often use shortenings that have been formulated specifically for their production. Danish margarines are workable up to 95F/35C, and puff-pastry margarines to 115F /46C: they don't melt until well into the baking process! However, high melting points have an important drawback: they mean that the fat remains solid at mouth temperature. Where b.u.t.ter and lard melt in the mouth and release luscious flavor, manufactured pastry shortenings can leave a pasty or waxy residue in the mouth, and have no true flavor of their own (they're often flavored with milk solids). Manufacturers of vegetable shortenings control the consistency of their products by controlling how much of the base oil's unsaturated fat is hydrogenated (p. 801). Standard cake shortening has the desirable 1525% solids over a temperature range triple that of b.u.t.ter, from 53 to 85F/1230C. It's therefore much easier to make flaky pastry with shortening than with b.u.t.ter. Because laminated pastries and breads are especially tricky to make, professionals and manufacturers often use shortenings that have been formulated specifically for their production. Danish margarines are workable up to 95F/35C, and puff-pastry margarines to 115F /46C: they don't melt until well into the baking process! However, high melting points have an important drawback: they mean that the fat remains solid at mouth temperature. Where b.u.t.ter and lard melt in the mouth and release luscious flavor, manufactured pastry shortenings can leave a pasty or waxy residue in the mouth, and have no true flavor of their own (they're often flavored with milk solids).

Food Words: Pastry, Pasta, Pate, Pie Pastry, Pasta, Pate, PieThe English word pastry, pastry, Italian Italian pasta, pasta, and French and French pate pate and and pate pate all go back to a suggestive group of ancient Greek words having to do with small particles and fine textures: they variously referred to powder, salt, barley porridge, cake, and an embroidered veil. A later Latin derivative, all go back to a suggestive group of ancient Greek words having to do with small particles and fine textures: they variously referred to powder, salt, barley porridge, cake, and an embroidered veil. A later Latin derivative, pasta, pasta, was applied to flour that had been wetted to a paste, then dried; it led to Italian was applied to flour that had been wetted to a paste, then dried; it led to Italian pasta pasta and to and to pate pate meaning "dough." meaning "dough." Pate Pate is a medieval French word that was given originally to a chopped meat preparation enclosed in a dough, but eventually came to name the meat preparation itself, with or without enclosure. is a medieval French word that was given originally to a chopped meat preparation enclosed in a dough, but eventually came to name the meat preparation itself, with or without enclosure. Pie Pie was the near equivalent of the original was the near equivalent of the original pate pate in medieval English, and meant a dish of any sort - meat, fish, vegetable, fruit - enclosed in pastry. The word had less to do with doughs than with odds and ends: it came from in medieval English, and meant a dish of any sort - meat, fish, vegetable, fruit - enclosed in pastry. The word had less to do with doughs than with odds and ends: it came from magpie, magpie, a bird with variegated coloring that collects miscellaneous objects for its nest. a bird with variegated coloring that collects miscellaneous objects for its nest.

Water in Pastry Fats An important difference between b.u.t.ter and either lard or shortening is that b.u.t.ter is about 15% water by weight, and therefore doesn't separate dough layers as thoroughly as the pure fats do; water droplets in the fat can glue adjacent layers together. Pastry makers generally prefer European-style b.u.t.ters, which contain less water than standard American b.u.t.ter (p. 35). However, some water is useful for producing steam that pushes apart the dough layers of laminated pastries. Manufacturers formulate puff-pastry margarine with about 10% water. An important difference between b.u.t.ter and either lard or shortening is that b.u.t.ter is about 15% water by weight, and therefore doesn't separate dough layers as thoroughly as the pure fats do; water droplets in the fat can glue adjacent layers together. Pastry makers generally prefer European-style b.u.t.ters, which contain less water than standard American b.u.t.ter (p. 35). However, some water is useful for producing steam that pushes apart the dough layers of laminated pastries. Manufacturers formulate puff-pastry margarine with about 10% water.

Other Ingredients Water is essential for binding the flour particles into a dough, and the water content is especially critical in pastries because there is so little. Pastry cooks say that as little as Water is essential for binding the flour particles into a dough, and the water content is especially critical in pastries because there is so little. Pastry cooks say that as little as 1 1/2 teaspoon/3 ml variation in water in 1 cup/120 gm flour can make the difference between a crumbly texture and a tough one. Eggs are often used to provide richness and added cohesiveness to crumbly pastries, and of course also contribute water. Various dairy products, including milk, cream, sour cream, creme fraiche, and cream cheese may replace some or all of the water, and at the same time provide flavor and fat as well as sugars and proteins for the browning reactions. Salt is added mainly for flavor, though it does have a tightening effect on gluten. teaspoon/3 ml variation in water in 1 cup/120 gm flour can make the difference between a crumbly texture and a tough one. Eggs are often used to provide richness and added cohesiveness to crumbly pastries, and of course also contribute water. Various dairy products, including milk, cream, sour cream, creme fraiche, and cream cheese may replace some or all of the water, and at the same time provide flavor and fat as well as sugars and proteins for the browning reactions. Salt is added mainly for flavor, though it does have a tightening effect on gluten.

Cooking Pastries Baking Pans Two portions of the same pastry dough, baked in the same oven but in different kinds of pan, will cook differently. Shiny pans reflect much of the oven's radiant heat (p. 782) away from the crust and so are slow cooking. Black pans absorb most of the radiant heat and conduct it to the crust, and clear gla.s.s allows it to pa.s.s right through and heat the crust directly. Thin metal pans can't hold much heat in themselves and so tend to slow heating and produce uneven browning. Heavier gauge metal pans and ceramic plates and molds can acc.u.mulate oven heat, get hotter than thin pans, and transmit the heat more evenly to the pastry. Two portions of the same pastry dough, baked in the same oven but in different kinds of pan, will cook differently. Shiny pans reflect much of the oven's radiant heat (p. 782) away from the crust and so are slow cooking. Black pans absorb most of the radiant heat and conduct it to the crust, and clear gla.s.s allows it to pa.s.s right through and heat the crust directly. Thin metal pans can't hold much heat in themselves and so tend to slow heating and produce uneven browning. Heavier gauge metal pans and ceramic plates and molds can acc.u.mulate oven heat, get hotter than thin pans, and transmit the heat more evenly to the pastry.

Baking Apart from bready croissants and Danish, most pastry doughs contain very little water, not nearly enough to gelate all the starch granules. Cooking therefore partly gelates the starch and dries the gluten network well, and produces a firm, crunchy or crisp texture and a golden brown exterior. Pastry crusts in particular are cooked at relatively high oven temperatures so that the dough heats through and sets quickly. Slow heating just melts the pastry dough's fat, and the protein-starch network slumps before the starch gets hot enough to absorb water from the gluten and set the structure. Apart from bready croissants and Danish, most pastry doughs contain very little water, not nearly enough to gelate all the starch granules. Cooking therefore partly gelates the starch and dries the gluten network well, and produces a firm, crunchy or crisp texture and a golden brown exterior. Pastry crusts in particular are cooked at relatively high oven temperatures so that the dough heats through and sets quickly. Slow heating just melts the pastry dough's fat, and the protein-starch network slumps before the starch gets hot enough to absorb water from the gluten and set the structure.

The filling in open pies and tarts blocks oven heat from reaching the pastry surface directly, and can prevent the crust from cooking through, so that it ends up pale and soggy rather than brown and dry. This problem is prevented by precooking the crust on its own (baking it "blind," or empty, often with dry beans or ceramic pie weights to support the dough and prevent slumping). A crisper bottom crust also results from higher oven temperatures and from putting the container on the lowest rack or directly on the oven floor. Crispness can be preserved under a moist filling by sealing the crust surface during precooking with a moisture-resistant layer of egg yolk or white, or afterwards with cooked-down jams or jellies, or chocolate, or a moisture-absorbing layer of compatible crumbs.

Crumbly Pastries: Short Pastry, Pate Brisee Crumbly but firm pastries are especially prominent in French cooking, where thin but robust crusts support quiches, various savory pies, and fruit tarts. Where American pie crusts are too tender to support themselves and are served from the pan, French tarts are almost always removed from the pan and stand on their own. In the standard French version of crumbly pastry, pate brisee, coa.r.s.e pieces of b.u.t.ter and egg yolks are placed in the midst of the proper amount of flour, and the liquid and solids gently worked together with the fingers to form a rough dough. The dough is then kneaded by pushing it into and along the work surface with the heel of the hand, an action that disperses the b.u.t.ter finely into the dough. The b.u.t.ter separates small flour aggregates from each other and prevents them from forming a continuous, tough ma.s.s, while the egg yolks provide moisture, fats, and proteins that will coagulate during cooking and help hold the flour aggregates together. The b.u.t.ter may be replaced by vegetable oils, poultry fats - chicken, duck, goose - and lard and beef tallow, depending on the nature of the filling. The dough is allowed to rest in the refrigerator to firm its consistency for the subsequent rolling out and shaping.

Pate sucree and pate sablee - "sugar pastry" and "sandy pastry" - are versions of crumbly pastry made with sugar. The large proportion of sugar in pate sablee gives a distinctly grainy character to the pastry.

One simple way to make crumbly pastry crusts is to start with premade crumbs, bread or cookie crumbs moistened with fat and simply pressed into the pan before a quick baking.

Flaky Pastries: American Pie Pastry The methods for making American-style pie dough produce a crust that is both tender and flaky. They disperse some of the fat evenly into the dough, separating small particles from each other, and some coa.r.s.ely, separating different layers of the dough from each other. There are various ways to accomplish this. One is to work the fat into the dry flour in two different stages, the first time finely, the second in pea-sized pieces. Another is to add the fat all at once, and use the fingers to fragment and gently rub the chunks down to pea size; the rubbing does the fine dispersion. (This method works better with shortening than with b.u.t.ter, which warm fingers can soften excessively.) A small amount of cold water, 24 tablespoons per cup/1530 gm per 100 gm flour, is then added and the mixture manipulated very briefly, just until the water is absorbed and a dough forms.

Early American Pie PastriesAmerican pie pastry is notable for having some of its fat rubbed into the flour to tenderize, and some rolled in for flakiness. The first American recipes - Amelia Simmons's "Puff Pastes for Tarts" - are notable for their terseness and variety. She gives several; here are three.No. 1. Rub one pound of b.u.t.ter into one pound of flour, whip 2 whites and add with cold water and one yolk; make into paste, roll in six or seven times one pound of b.u.t.ter, flouring it each roll. This is good for any small thing.No. 3. To any quant.i.ty of flour, rub in three fourths of its weight in b.u.t.ter (twelve eggs to a peck), rub in one third or half, and roll in the rest.No. 8. Rub in one and half pound of suet to six pounds of flour, and a spoon full of salt, wet with cream, roll in, in six or eight times, two and half pounds of b.u.t.ter - good for a chicken or meat pie.- American Cookery, American Cookery, 1796 1796 The dough is rested in the refrigerator to rechill the fat and let the water become more evenly distributed, and then is rolled out. The rolling stretches the dough and thus develops some gluten, and flattens the fat chunks into thin sheets. The combination creates the layered texture. The rolled dough is then rested to allow the gluten sheets to relax, and shaped with minimal stretching; otherwise the gluten may rebound and the crust shrink during baking. In the oven, the sheets of fat, trapped air, and steam from the dough water (and the water in any b.u.t.ter) all help to separate the dough into layers and give it a flaky texture.

Shortening and lard generally produce more tender and flaky crusts than b.u.t.ter, which melts into the dough at a lower temperature and whose water can cause dough particles and flakes to stick to each other.

Laminated Pastries: Puff Pastry, Pate Feuillete According to the food historian Charles Perry, puff and sheet pastries appear to have been invented by the Arabs and the Turks respectively, sometime around 1500. Though the aim in both is to produce many layers of very thin pastry, they involve two very different techniques.

Making Puff Pastry Preparing puff pastry dough is elaborate and time consuming. There are several different ways to construct the dough-fat sandwich, and several different ways to make the folds; here for simplicity I'll describe the standard one. Preparing puff pastry dough is elaborate and time consuming. There are several different ways to construct the dough-fat sandwich, and several different ways to make the folds; here for simplicity I'll describe the standard one.

The cook first mixes pastry flour with ice water to make a moderately moist initial dough, with about 50 parts water per 100 parts flour. Sometimes b.u.t.ter and/or lemon juices are included to weaken the gluten and make the dough more easily shaped. The mixing is done with minimal manipulation to minimize gluten development, which the later rollings-out accomplish. The dough is shaped into a square.

Early Recipes for Laminated Pastry: Early English "Puff Paste"Gervase Markham's recipe for "puff paste" is a cross between laminated and sheet pastries.Now for the making of puff paste of the best kind, you shall take the finest wheat flour after it hath been a little baked in a pot in the oven, and blend it well with eggs, whites and yolks all together, after the paste is well kneaded, roll out a part thereof as thin as you please, and then spread cold sweet b.u.t.ter over the same, then upon the same b.u.t.ter roll another leaf of the paste as before; and spread it with b.u.t.ter also; and thus roll leaf upon leaf with b.u.t.ter between till it be as thick as you think good: and with it either cover any baked meat, or make paste for venison, Florentine, tart or what dish else you please and so bake it.- The English Housewife, The English Housewife, 1615 1615 Now the fat, traditionally b.u.t.ter and weighing about half the initial dough weight is pounded with a rolling pin until it warms up to about 60F/15C and becomes pliable, its consistency matching the consistency of the dough. (Firmer fat would tear the dough, softer fat would be squeezed out during the later rolling. Shortenings, with their low water content, produce a lighter and crisper puff pastry, though a less flavorful one.) The fat is formed into a flat piece, placed on the dough square, and the combination repeatedly folded onto itself and rolled out, with turns to vary the direction of rolling and rests in the refrigerator to give the fat a chance to resolidify and the gluten to relax. The sequence of turning, rolling, folding, and refrigerating is repeated several times, for a total of six "turns." With each rolling out, the gluten becomes more developed, and the dough more elastic and difficult to shape.

The result of this work, which takes several hours, is a dough made up of 729 layers of moistened flour separated by 728 layers of fat. (The term millefeuille, millefeuille, or "thousand-leaf," is applied to a pastry made by stacking two baked pieces of puff pastry, with a layer of pastry cream in between.) The dough is rested for at least an hour after the final turn, and then is rolled out for baking to a thickness of about a quarter of an inch/6 mm. This means that each layer in the dough is microscopically thin, around a thousandth of an inch or a hundredth of a millimeter. This is much thinner than paper thin, about the diameter of an individual starch granule. The dough must be cut with a very sharp knife; a dull blade will press the many layers together at the edge and restrain their expansion. When puff pastry is baked in a very hot oven, the expanding air and water vapor puff the separate layers apart from each other and cause the volume to increase by four or more times. or "thousand-leaf," is applied to a pastry made by stacking two baked pieces of puff pastry, with a layer of pastry cream in between.) The dough is rested for at least an hour after the final turn, and then is rolled out for baking to a thickness of about a quarter of an inch/6 mm. This means that each layer in the dough is microscopically thin, around a thousandth of an inch or a hundredth of a millimeter. This is much thinner than paper thin, about the diameter of an individual starch granule. The dough must be cut with a very sharp knife; a dull blade will press the many layers together at the edge and restrain their expansion. When puff pastry is baked in a very hot oven, the expanding air and water vapor puff the separate layers apart from each other and cause the volume to increase by four or more times.

Quick Puff Pastry "Quick" puff pastry, also known as "flaky pastry" (England), "American" puff pastry, or demi-feuillete, is a shortcut hybrid of true puff pastry and American flaky pie pastry. Again there are many versions. Usually some or all of the fat is cut coa.r.s.ely into the flour as for pie pastry, cold water added to make a dough, any remaining fat sandwiched with the dough, and the dough then folded and rolled out two or three times, with periods of refrigeration to rechill the fat and relax the gluten. "Quick" puff pastry, also known as "flaky pastry" (England), "American" puff pastry, or demi-feuillete, is a shortcut hybrid of true puff pastry and American flaky pie pastry. Again there are many versions. Usually some or all of the fat is cut coa.r.s.ely into the flour as for pie pastry, cold water added to make a dough, any remaining fat sandwiched with the dough, and the dough then folded and rolled out two or three times, with periods of refrigeration to rechill the fat and relax the gluten.

Even quick puff pastry dough takes a couple of hours to make. Fortunately these doughs freeze well and are commercially available in frozen form.

Sheet Pastries: Phyllo, Strudel Unlike puff pastry doughs, sheet pastry doughs are prepared one layer at a time, and are a.s.sembled into pastries with a few dozen layers just before cooking. Charles Perry speculates that phyllo pastry was invented in Istanbul in the time of the early Ottoman empire around 1500; it's now used to make the Eastern Mediterranean honey-nut sweet baklava, savory turnovers (Turkish boreks), and many savory pies (Greek spanakopita and others). During the period when the Ottoman Turks ruled parts of eastern Europe, the phyllo leaf was adopted in Hungary as retes retes and in Austria as and in Austria as strudel. strudel.

Food Words: Phyllo, Strudel Phyllo, StrudelPhyllo is the Greek ancestor of French is the Greek ancestor of French feuille feuille and like it means "leaf." and like it means "leaf." Strudel Strudel reflects the unusual rolled form of this version of sheet pastry: it is German for "eddy" or "whirlpool." reflects the unusual rolled form of this version of sheet pastry: it is German for "eddy" or "whirlpool."

Phyllo dough is prepared by making a stiff flour-water dough (about 40 parts water to 100 flour) with a little salt and often some tenderizing acid or oil. The dough is thoroughly kneaded to develop the gluten, rested overnight, and then stretched out either in a single ma.s.s, or in small b.a.l.l.s that are rolled out into a thin disc, sprinkled with starch, and rolled out again. The dough eventually gets thin enough to become translucent, around 5 thousandths of an inch/0.1 mm thick. This is so thin that the silken dough quickly dries out and becomes brittle, so it's brushed with oil or melted b.u.t.ter to keep it supple until it's cut, stacked into a many-layered pastry, and baked.

The variant of phyllo called strudel is made somewhat differently. The initial dough is wetter, 5570 parts water per 100 flour, and contains a small amount of fat and often whole egg. The dough is kneaded, rested, rolled fairly thin, rested again, and then gradually stretched with the hands into one large sheet, which is then used as a wrapper to roll around a variety of savory and sweet preparations.

Both phyllo and strudel doughs are especially tricky to make, and are available refrigerated and frozen.

Pastry-Bread Hybrids: Croissants, Danish Pastries Croissants and Danish pastries are made in very much the same way that puff pastry is. Because the doughs for croissants and Danish pastries are essentially bread doughs, both moister and softer than puff dough, they are easily torn by cold, hard fat. The proper consistency of b.u.t.ter or margarine is therefore especially important in making croissants and Danish pastries.

Croissants According to Raymond Calvel, croissants first made a splash at the 1889 Paris World's Fair, where they were one of many kinds of According to Raymond Calvel, croissants first made a splash at the 1889 Paris World's Fair, where they were one of many kinds of Wienerbrod, Wienerbrod, or Vienna goods brought from the city that specialized in rich, sweet pastries. The original croissants were enriched yeast-raised breads shaped into a crescent. It wasn't until the 1920s that Parisian bakers had the idea of forming them from a laminated dough, thus creating a marvelous pastry that is both flaky and moistly, richly, tenderly bready. or Vienna goods brought from the city that specialized in rich, sweet pastries. The original croissants were enriched yeast-raised breads shaped into a crescent. It wasn't until the 1920s that Parisian bakers had the idea of forming them from a laminated dough, thus creating a marvelous pastry that is both flaky and moistly, richly, tenderly bready.

Croissants are made by preparing a firm but malleable dough with minimal kneading from flour, milk, and yeast; the proportion of liquid is 5070 parts to 100 flour. Some b.u.t.ter may be added to the dough during mixing to make the dough more extensible and easily rolled out. In earlier times, the dough was allowed an initial rise of six to seven hours; today it's only around one hour. The more time allowed for fermentation, the fuller the flavor and the lighter the finished pastry. The risen dough is deflated and chilled, then rolled out, covered with a layer of b.u.t.ter or pastry margarine, and repeatedly folded, rolled out, and chilled as puff pastry is, for a total of four to six turns. The finished dough is then rolled out to around a quarter of an inch/6 mm thick, cut into triangles, the triangles rolled up into tapered cylinders and allowed a final rise of about an hour at a temperature cool enough to prevent the fat from melting. When baked, the outer layers of the dough expand and dry out to form flaky, puff pastrylike sheets, while the inner layers remain moist and bake into exquisitely delicate sheets of bread, translucent and pebbled with tiny bubbles.

Danish Pastries What Americans call "Danish" pastries also originated as Vienna goods, but were introduced to the United States via Copenhagen. In the 19th century, Danish bakers took a basic Viennese enriched bread dough and added even more layering b.u.t.ter, thus making a lighter, crisper pastry than the original. They also used the dough to surround a variety of fillings, notably What Americans call "Danish" pastries also originated as Vienna goods, but were introduced to the United States via Copenhagen. In the 19th century, Danish bakers took a basic Viennese enriched bread dough and added even more layering b.u.t.ter, thus making a lighter, crisper pastry than the original. They also used the dough to surround a variety of fillings, notably remonce remonce (b.u.t.ter creamed with sugar and often including some form of almonds). Danish pastries are made in essentially the same way as croissants. The initial dough is moister and softer, includes sugar and also whole eggs, so it's sweeter, richer, and distinctively yellow, and it isn't given an initial rising. Often more b.u.t.ter or margarine is used for the laminations, and the dough may only be turned three times, so the layers are fewer and thicker. Danish pastry dough is often used as a container for sweet or rich fillings, or rolled out, covered with a combination of nuts, raisins or flavored sugar, rolled up, and cut into spiral cross-sections. Once the final pastry is formed, it's allowed to rise until about doubled in volume (again, at temperatures that keep the shortening solid), and then is baked. (b.u.t.ter creamed with sugar and often including some form of almonds). Danish pastries are made in essentially the same way as croissants. The initial dough is moister and softer, includes sugar and also whole eggs, so it's sweeter, richer, and distinctively yellow, and it isn't given an initial rising. Often more b.u.t.ter or margarine is used for the laminations, and the dough may only be turned three times, so the layers are fewer and thicker. Danish pastry dough is often used as a container for sweet or rich fillings, or rolled out, covered with a combination of nuts, raisins or flavored sugar, rolled up, and cut into spiral cross-sections. Once the final pastry is formed, it's allowed to rise until about doubled in volume (again, at temperatures that keep the shortening solid), and then is baked.

Tender Savory Pastry: Hot-Water Pastry, Pate a pate Hot-water pastry, or pate pastry, is unlike the other pastries. Its original purpose in medieval times was to provide a st.u.r.dy container for meat dishes meant to be kept for some time (p. 560). Today it's used to enclose meat pates, to make meat pies, and sometimes as an alternative to puff pastry that surrounds the tenderloin in beef Wellington and the salmon in coulibiac. It is easily rolled out and formed into a container, able to retain juices released during cooking, yet tender to both knife and tooth. It's made with a relatively large amount of water - 50 parts per 100 flour - and about 35 parts lard. The water and lard are heated together near the boil, and the flour is then added, the mixture stirred just until it forms a h.o.m.ogeneous ma.s.s, then rested. The large proportion of fat limits gluten development, thus providing tenderness, and also acts as a kind of water repellant, thus providing a barrier against cooking juices. The precooking swells and gelates some of the flour starch, which takes up water and gives the dough a thick, workable consistency in place of an elastic gluten structure.

Cookies Common cookies are simple pleasures, but the microcosm of all cookies is a summa summa of the baker's art. Cookies include sweet bitesized baked goods of all sorts: crumbly and laminated pastries, wafers, b.u.t.ter and sponge cakes, biscuits, meringues, nut pastes. The term comes from the medieval Dutch for "little cake." The French equivalent is of the baker's art. Cookies include sweet bitesized baked goods of all sorts: crumbly and laminated pastries, wafers, b.u.t.ter and sponge cakes, biscuits, meringues, nut pastes. The term comes from the medieval Dutch for "little cake." The French equivalent is pet.i.ts fours, pet.i.ts fours, or "little oven goods," and the German or "little oven goods," and the German klein Geback klein Geback means much the same. Their miniature size and the numerous possibilities for shaping, decorating, and flavoring have resulted in a great diversity of cookies, many of them developed by the French and named in the same spirit that gave us Italian pastas called b.u.t.terflies, little worms, and priest-stranglers: hence cat's tongues, Russian cigarettes, eyegla.s.ses, and Nero's ears. means much the same. Their miniature size and the numerous possibilities for shaping, decorating, and flavoring have resulted in a great diversity of cookies, many of them developed by the French and named in the same spirit that gave us Italian pastas called b.u.t.terflies, little worms, and priest-stranglers: hence cat's tongues, Russian cigarettes, eyegla.s.ses, and Nero's ears.

Cookie Ingredients and Textures Most cookies are both sweet and rich, with substantial proportions of sugar and fat. They're also tender, thanks to ingredients, proportions, and mixing techniques that minimize the formation of a gluten network. But then they may be moist or dry, crumbly or flaky or crisp or chewy. The diversity of textures arises from a handful of ingredients, and from the proportions and methods of combining them.

Flour Most cookies are made with pastry or all-purpose flour, but both bread flour and cake flour produce doughs and batters that spread less (thanks respectively to more gluten and more absorbant starch). A high proportion of flour to water, as in shortbread and pastry-dough cookies, limits both gluten development and starch gelation - as little as 20% of the starch in some dry cookies is gelated - and produces a crumbly texture. A high proportion of water to flour, as in batter-based cookies, dilutes gluten proteins, allows extensive starch gelation, and produces either a soft, cakelike texture or a crisp, crunchy one, depending on the method and how much moisture is baked out of the cookie. For doughs that need to hold their shape during baking - those rolled out and stamped with a cookie cutter - a high flour content and some gluten development are necessary. The baker gives fluid batters some solidity by chilling them, and then shapes them by extruding them through a pastry pipe or setting them in molds. Most cookies are made with pastry or all-purpose flour, but both bread flour and cake flour produce doughs and batters that spread less (thanks respectively to more gluten and more absorbant starch). A high proportion of flour to water, as in shortbread and pastry-dough cookies, limits both gluten development and starch gelation - as little as 20% of the starch in some dry cookies is gelated - and produces a crumbly texture. A high proportion of water to flour, as in batter-based cookies, dilutes gluten proteins, allows extensive starch gelation, and produces either a soft, cakelike texture or a crisp, crunchy one, depending on the method and how much moisture is baked out of the cookie. For doughs that need to hold their shape during baking - those rolled out and stamped with a cookie cutter - a high flour content and some gluten development are necessary. The baker gives fluid batters some solidity by chilling them, and then shapes them by extruding them through a pastry pipe or setting them in molds.

A coa.r.s.er but more fragile backbone can be created by replacing some or all of the flour with ground nuts, as in cla.s.sic macaroons made only with egg whites, sugar, and almonds.

Sugar Sugar makes several contributions to cookie structure and texture. When creamed with the fat, or beaten with egg, it introduces air bubbles into the mix and lightens the texture. It competes with the flour starch for water, and raises the starch gelation temperature nearly to the boiling point: so it adds hardness and crispness. A large proportion of pure table sugar, sucrose, contributes to hardness in another way. The proportion of sugar in some cookie doughs is so high that only about half the sugar dissolves in the limited amount of moisture. When the dough heats up during baking, more sugar can dissolve, and the added liquid causes the cookie to soften and spread. Then when the cookie cools, some of the sugar recrystallizes, and the initially soft cookie develops a distinctive snap - a process that may take a day or two. Other forms of sugar - honey, mola.s.ses, corn syrup - tend to absorb water rather than crystallize (chapter 12), so when heated they form a syrup that permeates the cookie, helps it to spread, and firms as it cools, making it moist and chewy. Sugar makes several contributions to cookie structure and texture. When creamed with the fat, or beaten with egg, it introduces air bubbles into the mix and lightens the texture. It competes with the flour starch for water, and raises the starch gelation temperature nearly to the boiling point: so it adds hardness and crispness. A large proportion of pure table sugar, sucrose, contributes to hardness in another way. The proportion of sugar in some cookie doughs is so high that only about half the sugar dissolves in the limited amount of moisture. When the dough heats up during baking, more sugar can dissolve, and the added liquid causes the cookie to soften and spread. Then when the cookie cools, some of the sugar recrystallizes, and the initially soft cookie develops a distinctive snap - a process that may take a day or two. Other forms of sugar - honey, mola.s.ses, corn syrup - tend to absorb water rather than crystallize (chapter 12), so when heated they form a syrup that permeates the cookie, helps it to spread, and firms as it cools, making it moist and chewy.

Eggs Eggs generally provide most of the water in a cookie mix, as well as proteins that help bind the flour particles together and coagulate during baking to add solidity. The fat and emulsifiers in the yolk enrich and moisten. The higher the proportion of whole eggs or yolks in a recipe, the more cake-like the texture. Eggs generally provide most of the water in a cookie mix, as well as proteins that help bind the flour particles together and coagulate during baking to add solidity. The fat and emulsifiers in the yolk enrich and moisten. The higher the proportion of whole eggs or yolks in a recipe, the more cake-like the texture.

Fat Fat provides richness, moistness, and suppleness. When it melts during cooking, it lubricates the solid particles of flour and sugar and encourages the cookie to spread and thin - a quality that is sometimes desirable, sometimes not. Because b.u.t.ter melts at a lower temperature than margarine or shortening, it gives cookies more time to spread before the protein and starch set. b.u.t.ter is about 15% water, and is the main or only source of moisture in such low-egg recipes as shortbread and tea cookies. Fat provides richness, moistness, and suppleness. When it melts during cooking, it lubricates the solid particles of flour and sugar and encourages the cookie to spread and thin - a quality that is sometimes desirable, sometimes not. Because b.u.t.ter melts at a lower temperature than margarine or shortening, it gives cookies more time to spread before the protein and starch set. b.u.t.ter is about 15% water, and is the main or only source of moisture in such low-egg recipes as shortbread and tea cookies.

Leavening Leavening, whether tiny bubbles of air or of carbon dioxide, helps tenderize cookies, and encourages them to puff. Many cookies are leavened only with air bubbles incorporated when the sugar is creamed with the fat, or beaten with the eggs. Some are supplemented with chemical leavenings. Alkaline baking soda may be used when the dough includes such acid ingredients as honey, brown sugar, and cake flour. Leavening, whether tiny bubbles of air or of carbon dioxide, helps tenderize cookies, and encourages them to puff. Many cookies are leavened only with air bubbles incorporated when the sugar is creamed with the fat, or beaten with the eggs. Some are supplemented with chemical leavenings. Alkaline baking soda may be used when the dough includes such acid ingredients as honey, brown sugar, and cake flour.

Making and Keeping Cookies There are as many ways to prepare cookies as there are ways to produce cakes and pastries - and then some. The standard American categories are: Drop cookies, formed from a soft dough that is portioned by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet, where they spread out during baking. Chocolate chip and oatmeal cookies are examples.

Cut-out cookies, formed from a stiffer dough that holds its shape. The dough is rolled out and porcookietioned with a cookie cutter; baking sets the cookies in their original shape. Sugar cookies and b.u.t.ter cookies are examples.

Hand-shaped cookies, formed from batters that are stiffened by chilling and then carefully piped or molded for baking. Examples are ladyfingers and madeleines.

Bar cookies, shaped after baking, not before. They're cut from the thin cake-like ma.s.s produced when the batter is baked in a shallow pan. Date and nut bars and brownies are examples.

Icebox cookies, formed by slicing cross-sections from a premade cylinder of dough kept in the refrigerator for use when needed. Many cookie doughs can be treated this way.

Thanks to their small size, thinness, and high sugar content, cookies quickly brown at oven temperatures. Their bottoms and edges may get too dark while the centers finish cooking, a problem that can be minimized by lowering the oven temperature and using light baking sheets that reflect radiant heat, rather than dark ones that absorb it. Slight underbaking helps produce a moister, chewier texture. Immediately after baking, many cookies are soft and malleable, a fact that allows the cook to shape thin wafer cookies into flower-like cups, rolled cylinders, and arched tiles that then stiffen as they cool.

Some Cookie Doughs and Batters: Ingredients and Typical Proportions With their low water content, cookies are especially p.r.o.ne to losing their texture during storage. Crisp, dry cookies absorb moisture from the air and get soft; moist, chewy cookies lose moisture and become dry. Cookies are therefore best stored in an airtight container. With their low moisture and high sugar levels, they are not very hospitable to microbes, and keep well.

Pasta, Noodles, and Dumplings One of the simplest preparations of cereal flour gave us one of the most popular foods in the world: pasta. The word is Italian for "paste" or "dough," and pasta is nothing more than wheat flour and water combined to make a clay-like ma.s.s, formed into small pieces, and boiled in water until cooked through - not baked, as are nearly all other doughs. Noodle Noodle comes from the German word for the same preparation, and generally refers to pasta-like preparations made outside the Italian tradition. The keys to pasta's appeal are its moist, fine, satisfyingly substantial texture and its neutral flavor, which makes it a good partner for a broad range of other ingredients. comes from the German word for the same preparation, and generally refers to pasta-like preparations made outside the Italian tradition. The keys to pasta's appeal are its moist, fine, satisfyingly substantial texture and its neutral flavor, which makes it a good partner for a broad range of other ingredients.

Two cultures in the world have thoroughly explored the possibilities of boiled grain paste: Italy and China. Their discoveries were different, and complementary. In Italy, the availability of high-gluten durum wheat led to the development of a st.u.r.dy, protein-rich pasta, one that can be dried and stored indefinitely, one that readily lent itself to industrial manufacturing, and that can be formed into hundreds of fanciful shapes. The Italians also refined the art of making fresh pastas from soft wheat flours, and evolved an entire branch of cooking based on pasta as the princ.i.p.al ingredient, its combination of substance and tenderness providing the foundation for flavorful sauces - usually just enough to coat the surfaces - and fillings. In China, which had soft, low-gluten wheats, cooks concentrated on simple long noodles and thin wrappers, prepared them fresh and by hand, sometimes with great panache and just moments before cooking, and served the soft, slippery results almost exclusively in large amounts of thin broth. More remarkably, Chinese cooks found ways to make noodles from many different materials, including other grains and even pure, protein-free starch from beans and root vegetables.

The History of Pasta and Noodles It's a story often told, and often refuted, that the medieval traveler Marco Polo found noodles in China and introduced them to Italy. A recent book by Silvano Serventi and Francoise Sabban has set the record straight in authoritative and fascinating detail. China was indeed the first country to develop the art of noodle making, but there were pastas in the Mediterranean world long before Marco Polo.

Noodles in China Despite the fact that wheat was grown in the Mediterranean region long before it arrived in China, the northern Chinese appear to have been the first to develop the art of noodle making, sometime before 200 Despite the fact that wheat was grown in the Mediterranean region long before it arrived in China, the northern Chinese appear to have been the first to develop the art of noodle making, sometime before 200 BCE BCE. Around 300 CE CE, Shu Xi wrote