Milk in BreadBoth fresh and powdered milk are sometimes included in doughs for their flavor and nutritiousness, but they can weaken the gluten of bread dough and produce a dense loaf. The culprit appears to be a whey protein, which can be inactivated by scalding the milk - bringing it just to the boil - before use. (The milk must be cooled before mixing to avoid precooking the flour and damaging the yeast.) Flatbreads Thin flatbreads were the original breads, and are still a major source of nourishment in many countries throughout the world. The essential characteristic of flatbreads is that they cook very quickly, in as little as two minutes, on a simple hot surface, whether a pan, an oven floor or wall, or a ma.s.s of hot pebbles. The heat is often very high - pizza ovens can run at 900F/450C - and this means that tiny air-pockets in the dough are puffed up by rapidly vaporizing steam, essentially leavening the dough without the necessity of fermentation (though many flatbreads are made with leavened doughs). This puffing, and the breads' thinness, make them tender; and since neither requires a strong gluten, flatbreads can be made from all kinds of grains. Despite the short baking time, the high temperatures develop a delicious toasted flavor across the extensive surface of flatbreads. Thin flatbreads were the original breads, and are still a major source of nourishment in many countries throughout the world. The essential characteristic of flatbreads is that they cook very quickly, in as little as two minutes, on a simple hot surface, whether a pan, an oven floor or wall, or a ma.s.s of hot pebbles. The heat is often very high - pizza ovens can run at 900F/450C - and this means that tiny air-pockets in the dough are puffed up by rapidly vaporizing steam, essentially leavening the dough without the necessity of fermentation (though many flatbreads are made with leavened doughs). This puffing, and the breads' thinness, make them tender; and since neither requires a strong gluten, flatbreads can be made from all kinds of grains. Despite the short baking time, the high temperatures develop a delicious toasted flavor across the extensive surface of flatbreads.

Flatbreads often puff to an impressive if temporary volume, and the central cavity of pita and similar breads is used as a pocket for filling with other foods. Puffing occurs when the two bread surfaces have set in the heat and become tougher than the inner layer, where steam acc.u.mulates and eventually tears the tender interior, forcing the two surfaces apart. When puffing is undesirable - in crackers, for example, which would become too fragile - the sheeted dough is "docked," or p.r.i.c.ked in a regular pattern with a pointed utensil - a fork, or a special stamp - to form dense gluten nodes that resist puffing.

Pretzels Pretzels are unusual for their woven shape, dark brown crust, and unusual flavor. Like crackers, they're made from a stiff yeast dough of soft wheat flour. In manufacturing, the formed dough is sprayed for 1015 seconds with a hot 1% solution of alkaline sodium hydroxide (lye) or sodium carbonate. The heat and moisture combine to gelate the surface starch. The dough is then salted and baked for about five minutes in a very hot oven. The starch gel hardens to a shiny finish and thanks to the alkaline conditions created by the lye, browning-reaction pigments and flavor compounds rapidly acc.u.mulate. (The lye reacts with carbon dioxide in the oven to form a harmless edible carbonate.) The final step is a long, slow bake to dry the whole pretzel out. The pretzel is crisp but fragile thanks to tiny airy bubbles and ungelated starch granules throughout, and it has a distinctive flavor from its alkaline-browned surface. Pretzels are unusual for their woven shape, dark brown crust, and unusual flavor. Like crackers, they're made from a stiff yeast dough of soft wheat flour. In manufacturing, the formed dough is sprayed for 1015 seconds with a hot 1% solution of alkaline sodium hydroxide (lye) or sodium carbonate. The heat and moisture combine to gelate the surface starch. The dough is then salted and baked for about five minutes in a very hot oven. The starch gel hardens to a shiny finish and thanks to the alkaline conditions created by the lye, browning-reaction pigments and flavor compounds rapidly acc.u.mulate. (The lye reacts with carbon dioxide in the oven to form a harmless edible carbonate.) The final step is a long, slow bake to dry the whole pretzel out. The pretzel is crisp but fragile thanks to tiny airy bubbles and ungelated starch granules throughout, and it has a distinctive flavor from its alkaline-browned surface.

Soft and homemade pretzels may be allowed to rise before being boiled briefly in a solution of baking soda and then baked for 10 or 15 minutes in a hot oven.

Bagels The bagel is a relatively small, ring-shaped bread that arose in Eastern Europe, and was introduced to the United States by immigrants to New York in the early 20th century. The bagel is a relatively small, ring-shaped bread that arose in Eastern Europe, and was introduced to the United States by immigrants to New York in the early 20th century.

Traditionally, the bagel had a shiny, thick, chewy crust and a dense interior; after its popularity grew in the late 20th century, many bakers began to make it larger and softer. Bagels are made with strong-gluten flour, which is made into a very stiff dough (a standard bread dough has 65 parts water to 100 flour; bagel dough has only 45 to 50). Traditional bagels are made by forming the dough, allowing it to rise somewhat (an 18-hour r.e.t.a.r.dation gives a good crumb), immersing it in boiling water for 1.53 minutes on both sides to expand the interior and develop a thick crust, and then baking it. In the modern method, which is simpler to automate and takes a fraction of the usual time, the formed dough is steamed and then baked, with no slow rise and no immersion in boiling water. The steaming puffs the dough up more than rising and boiling do, and produces a thinner crust. The result is a lighter, softer ring.

Asian Steamed Breads The Chinese have been making and eating steamed breads and buns for around 2,000 years. Asian breads are generally small, round, very white, with a smooth, shiny surface and thin skin, and a moist, springy texture that may be chewy ( The Chinese have been making and eating steamed breads and buns for around 2,000 years. Asian breads are generally small, round, very white, with a smooth, shiny surface and thin skin, and a moist, springy texture that may be chewy (mantou) or tender and fluffy (bao). They are generally made from soft wheats with moderate gluten content and strength. The relatively stiff dough is fermented, rolled out several times, then cut, formed, proofed, and steamed for 1020 minutes.

Some Flatbreads of the World

Country

Bread Bread

Qualities Qualities

Unleavened

Israel

Matzoh Matzoh

Very thin, cracker-like Very thin, cracker-like

Armenia

Lavash Lavash

Paper-thin, often dried and rehydrated Paper-thin, often dried and rehydrated

Italy (Sardinia)

Parchment bread, carta di musica Parchment bread, carta di musica

Semolina flour, very thin Semolina flour, very thin

Norway

Lefse Lefse

Flour & potatoes, often with b.u.t.ter, cream Flour & potatoes, often with b.u.t.ter, cream

Scandinavia

Various rye, oat, barley flatbreads Various rye, oat, barley flatbreads

Many dry Many dry

Scotland

Bannocks Bannocks

Oat cakes Oat cakes

Tibet

Barley bread Barley bread

From roasted barley flour, tsampa From roasted barley flour, tsampa

China

Shaobing Shaobing

Flour, water, lard, folded and rolled, layered Flour, water, lard, folded and rolled, layered

Baobing

Hot-water dough, rolled very thin for wrappers Hot-water dough, rolled very thin for wrappers

India

Chapati Chapati

Whole-wheat, dry-roasted on pan Whole-wheat, dry-roasted on pan

Phulka

Chapati cooked, then puffed directly on coals Chapati cooked, then puffed directly on coals

Paratha

Folded with ghee, rolled, layered Folded with ghee, rolled, layered

Puri, golegappa, lucchi

Deep-fried, puffed Deep-fried, puffed

Mexico

Tortillas Tortillas

Wheat flour or maize Wheat flour or maize