Za'atar

Marjoram, oregano, thyme, sesame, sumac Marjoram, oregano, thyme, sesame, sumac

Zhug

c.u.min, cardamom, garlic, chilli c.u.min, cardamom, garlic, chilli

India

Garam masala

c.u.min, coriander, cardamom, black pepper, clove, mace, cinnamon c.u.min, coriander, cardamom, black pepper, clove, mace, cinnamon

Panch phoran

c.u.min, fennel, nigella, fenugreek, mustard c.u.min, fennel, nigella, fenugreek, mustard

China

Five-spice

Star anise, Sichuan pepper, ca.s.sia, clove, fennel Star anise, Sichuan pepper, ca.s.sia, clove, fennel

j.a.pan

Shichimi

Sansho, mustard, poppyseed, sesame seed, mustard, dried mandarin peel Sansho, mustard, poppyseed, sesame seed, mustard, dried mandarin peel

Mexico

Recado rojo

Annatto, Mexican oregano, c.u.min, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, allspice, garlic, salt Annatto, Mexican oregano, c.u.min, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, allspice, garlic, salt

One positive effect of oxygen on finely ground spices is manifested in the aging of ground blended spices, which are said to mellow over the course of several days or weeks.

The Influence of Other Ingredients Because aroma chemicals are generally more soluble in oils, fats, and alcohol than in water, the ingredients in the dish will also influence the speed and degree of flavor extraction, as well as the release of flavor during eating. Oils and fats dissolve more aroma molecules than water during cooking, but also hang on to them during eating, so that their flavor appears more gradually and persists longer. Alcohol also extracts aromas more efficiently, but because it too is volatile, it releases them relatively quickly. Because aroma chemicals are generally more soluble in oils, fats, and alcohol than in water, the ingredients in the dish will also influence the speed and degree of flavor extraction, as well as the release of flavor during eating. Oils and fats dissolve more aroma molecules than water during cooking, but also hang on to them during eating, so that their flavor appears more gradually and persists longer. Alcohol also extracts aromas more efficiently, but because it too is volatile, it releases them relatively quickly.

Two methods of flavor extraction that take advantage of the volatility of aroma molecules are steaming and smoking. Herbs and spices can be immersed in the steaming water, or can form a bed on which the food sits above the steam; either way, heat drives aroma molecules into the steam, which then condenses onto the cooler surface of the food, and flavors it. If placed on smoldering coals, or onto a heated pan, herbs and spices will emit not only their usual aromatics, but aromatics transformed by the high heat.

Marinades and Rubs In the case of large solid chunks of meat or fish, it's easy to get herb and spice flavors onto the food surface, but not so easy to get them inside. Water-and oil-based marinades coat the meat with flavorful liquid, while pastes and dry rubs put the solid aromatics in more direct contact with the meat surface. Because flavors are mainly fat-soluble molecules, and meat is 75% water, flavor molecules can't move very far inside. A distinctly salty marinade or rub can help somewhat by disrupting the meat tissue (p. 155) and making it easier for some slightly water-soluble aromas to penetrate it. A more efficient method is to use a cooking syringe, and inject small portions of the flavorful liquid into many different parts of the meat interior.

Herbs and Spices as Coatings A useful side effect of coating meat and fish with a paste or rub of herbs and spices is that such a coating acts as a protective layer - like the skin on poultry - that insulates the meat itself from the direct high heat of oven or grill. This means that the outer layers of meat end up less overcooked, and so moister. Coa.r.s.ely cracked spices, coriander in particular, can provide a crunchy counterpoint to the softer insides. The flavor of a spice crust is improved if the coating contains some oil, which essentially causes the crust to fry rather than simply dry out.

Extracts: Flavored Oils, Vinegars, Alcohols A special case of flavor extraction is the making of flavor extracts themselves: preparations that serve as instant sources of flavor for other dishes. The most common materials used for extraction are oils, vinegars, sugar syrups (especially for flowers), and alcohols (for example, a neutral vodka for flavoring with citrus peel). The herb and/or spice is usually bruised to damage the cellular structure and make it easier for the liquid to penetrate and aromas to escape. Oils, vinegars, and syrups are often heated before the herb or spice is added to kill bacteria and facilitate their initial penetration into the tissue, then are allowed to cool to avoid changing the flavor. Delicate flowers may require less than an hour to flavor a syrup, while leaves and seeds are usually infused in the extracting liquids for weeks at a cool room temperature. When the extract has reached its desired strength, the liquid is strained off and then stored in a cool, dark place.

Because alcohol, acetic acid, and concentrated sugar all kill bacteria or inhibit their growth, flavored alcohols, vinegars, and syrups pose few safety problems. Oils, however, actually encourage the growth of deadly Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium botulinum, whose spores can survive brief boiling and germinate when protected from the air. Most herbs and spices don't provide enough nutrients for botulism bacteria to grow on, but garlic does. Infused oils are safest when they're made and stored at refrigerator temperatures, which do slow extraction, but also prevent bacterial growth and slow deterioration. whose spores can survive brief boiling and germinate when protected from the air. Most herbs and spices don't provide enough nutrients for botulism bacteria to grow on, but garlic does. Infused oils are safest when they're made and stored at refrigerator temperatures, which do slow extraction, but also prevent bacterial growth and slow deterioration.

Commercial Extracts Commercial flavor extracts, unlike kitchen-made extracts, are highly concentrated and are added to foods in tiny quant.i.ties, a few drops or a fraction of a spoonful in a whole dish. Vanilla, almond, mint, and anise are common examples. Some extracts and oils are prepared from actual herbs and spices, while others are prepared from one or a few synthetic chemicals that capture the essence of the flavoring, but don't match it in complexity and mellowness (artificial extracts often taste harsh and off). The advantage of synthetic extracts is their low price. Commercial flavor extracts, unlike kitchen-made extracts, are highly concentrated and are added to foods in tiny quant.i.ties, a few drops or a fraction of a spoonful in a whole dish. Vanilla, almond, mint, and anise are common examples. Some extracts and oils are prepared from actual herbs and spices, while others are prepared from one or a few synthetic chemicals that capture the essence of the flavoring, but don't match it in complexity and mellowness (artificial extracts often taste harsh and off). The advantage of synthetic extracts is their low price.

Flavor Evolution Once the aroma molecules in herbs and spices are released into a preparation and exposed to other ingredients, the air, and heat, they begin to undergo a host of chemical reactions. Some fraction of the original aroma chemicals becomes altered into a variety of other chemicals, so the initially strong, characteristic notes become more subdued, and the general complexity of the mixture increases. This maturing can be a simple side effect of cooking the flavorings with the other ingredients, but it often const.i.tutes a separate preparation step. When c.u.min or coriander are toasted on their own, for example, their sugars and amino acids undergo browning reactions and generate savory aroma molecules typical of roasted and toasted foods (pyrazines), thus developing a new layer of flavor that complements the original raw aroma.

Maturing Spice Flavors: The Indian System System The use of spices is especially ancient and sophisticated in India and Southeast Asia. Indian cooks have several different ways of maturing spice flavors before their incorporation into a dish. The use of spices is especially ancient and sophisticated in India and Southeast Asia. Indian cooks have several different ways of maturing spice flavors before their incorporation into a dish.

The toasting on a hot pan of whole dry spices, typically mustard, c.u.min, or fenugreek, for a minute or two until the seeds begin to pop, the point at which their inner moisture has vaporized and they are just beginning to brown. Spices cooked in this way are mellowed, but individually; they retain their own ident.i.ties.

The frying in oil or ghee of mixed powdered spices, often including turmeric, c.u.min, and coriander. This step allows the different aroma chemicals to react with each other so that the flavors become more integrated, and is usually followed by the sequential addition of garlic, ginger, onions, and other fresh components of what will become the sauce-like phase of the dish.

The slow frying of a paste of powdered and fresh spices, with constant stirring until much of the moisture evaporates, the oil separates from the paste, and the spice mixture begins to darken. Mexican cooks treat their pureed chilli mixtures in much the same way. This technique yields its own unique flavors, since dried and fresh ingredients (including active enzymes from the latter) can interact from the beginning, and moisture from the fresh spices prevents the dried spices from being as affected by the heat as they are when fried on their own.

The brief frying in ghee of whole spices, which are then sprinkled on top of a just-cooked dish as a final garnish.

Indian cooks also aromatize some dishes with a remarkable combination of smoking and spicing called dhungar. dhungar. They put the dish into a pot along with a hollowed onion or small bowl that contains a live coal, sprinkle the coal with ghee and sometimes spices, and cover the pot tightly to infuse the dish with the fumes. They put the dish into a pot along with a hollowed onion or small bowl that contains a live coal, sprinkle the coal with ghee and sometimes spices, and cover the pot tightly to infuse the dish with the fumes.

In sum, herbs and spices are remarkably diverse ingredients in themselves, and are capable of producing a remarkable diversity of effects. Combinations, proportions, particle sizes, the temperature and duration of cooking, all have an influence on the flavor of a dish.

Herbs and Spices as Thickeners Some herbs and spices are used to provide the substance of a dish as well as its aromatic essence. A puree of fresh herbs, as in the Italian pesto sauce made from basil, is thick because the herb's own moisture is already bound up with various cell materials. And thanks to the abundance of those cell materials - mainly cell walls and membranes - such purees also do a good job of coating oil droplets and so creating a stable, luxurious emulsion (p. 628). Fresh chillis, which are fruits, produce a watery puree, but one that cooks down to a wonderful smoothness thanks to its abundant cell-wall pectins. Many Mexican sauces are made from a backbone of dried chillis, which are easily rehydrated to produce the same smooth puree; and Hungarian paprikashes are thickened with powdered chillis.

Indian and Southeast Asian dishes often owe their thickness to a combination of dried and fresh spices. Ground coriander absorbs a lot of water thanks to its thick dry husk; ginger, turmeric, and galangal are starchy root-like rhizomes, and their starch dissolves during prolonged simmering to provide a thickening tangle of long molecular chains. Ground dried sa.s.safras leaves, or file powder, similarly thickens Louisianan gumbo. And fenugreek is remarkable for its high content of a mucilaginous carbohydrate called galactomannan, which is released simply by soaking the ground seeds.

A Survey of Common Herbs Most of the herbs used in traditional European cooking are members of two plant groups, the mint family and the carrot family. The family members resemble each other to varying degrees, so in this survey I've grouped them together. The remaining herbs then follow in mostly alphabetical order.

Fresh herbs are usually harvested from mature plants, often as they're beginning to flower, when their defensive essential oil content is at its peak. The oil content of Mediterranean herbs is higher on the side of the plant facing the sun. An interesting variation is to harvest them as young sprouts with just a few leaves, when their essential oil content can be very different. Fennel sprouts, for example, contain relatively little anise-like anethole, which dominates the flavor of the mature plant.

The Mint Family The mint family is a large one, with around 180 genera, and it provides more of our familiar kitchen herbs than any other family. Why such generosity? A fortunate combination of several factors. Members of the mint family dominate the dry, rocky Mediterranean scrublands where few other plants grow, and they cope with their exposed situation with a vigorous chemical defense. Their chemical defenses are located mainly in small glands that project from their leaves, external and therefore expandable storage tanks that can make up as much as 10% of the leaf's weight. And members of the mint family are both promiscuous chemists and promiscuous breeders: individual species make a broad range of aromatic chemicals, and they readily hybridize with each other. The result is a great variety of plants and aromas.

Basil Basils are a large and fascinating group of herbs. They're members of the tropical genus Basils are a large and fascinating group of herbs. They're members of the tropical genus Ocimum, Ocimum, which probably originated in Africa, and was domesticated in India. There are around 165 species in the genus which probably originated in Africa, and was domesticated in India. There are around 165 species in the genus Ocimum, Ocimum, several of which are eaten. Basil was known to the Greeks and Romans, took firmest root in Liguria and Provence, inventors of the popular basil purees called pesto and pistou, and was hardly known in the United States until the 1970s. The standard "sweet basil" of Europe and North America, several of which are eaten. Basil was known to the Greeks and Romans, took firmest root in Liguria and Provence, inventors of the popular basil purees called pesto and pistou, and was hardly known in the United States until the 1970s. The standard "sweet basil" of Europe and North America, Ocimum basilic.u.m, Ocimum basilic.u.m, is among the more virtuosic of the herbs, and has been developed into several different flavor varieties, including lemon, lime, cinnamon, anise, and camphor. Most varieties of sweet basil are dominated by flowery and tarragon notes, though the variety used in Genoa to make the cla.s.sic sauce is among the more virtuosic of the herbs, and has been developed into several different flavor varieties, including lemon, lime, cinnamon, anise, and camphor. Most varieties of sweet basil are dominated by flowery and tarragon notes, though the variety used in Genoa to make the cla.s.sic sauce pesto genovese pesto genovese is apparently dominated by mildly spicy methyleugenol and clove-like eugenol, with no tarragon aroma at all. Thai basil ( is apparently dominated by mildly spicy methyleugenol and clove-like eugenol, with no tarragon aroma at all. Thai basil (O. basilic.u.m and and tenuiflorum tenuiflorum) tends toward the anise-like and camphoraceous; Indian holy basil (O. tenuiflorum) is dominated by eugenol.

The flavor of basil depends not only on the variety, but on growing conditions and the stage at which it is harvested. Generally, aroma compounds make up a larger proportion of young sweet basil leaves than old, by as much as five times. In leaves that are still growing, the relative proportions of the different compounds actually vary along the length of the leaf, with the older tip richer in tarragon and clove notes, the younger base in eucalyptus and floral notes.

Bergamot This herb, also known as bee balm and Oswego tea, comes from a North American member of the mint family, This herb, also known as bee balm and Oswego tea, comes from a North American member of the mint family, Monarda didyma, Monarda didyma, whose aroma is somewhat lemony. The same name is given to a member of the citrus family whose essential oil is rich in flowery linalyl acetate, and which is the distinctive addition to Earl Grey tea. (Confusingly, European watermint [p. 404] is also sometimes called bergamot.) whose aroma is somewhat lemony. The same name is given to a member of the citrus family whose essential oil is rich in flowery linalyl acetate, and which is the distinctive addition to Earl Grey tea. (Confusingly, European watermint [p. 404] is also sometimes called bergamot.) h.o.r.ehound h.o.r.ehound h.o.r.ehound, so called for its hairy white (h.o.a.ry) leaves, is a Eurasian species, h.o.r.ehound, so called for its hairy white (h.o.a.ry) leaves, is a Eurasian species, Marrubium vulgare, Marrubium vulgare, with a musky and bitter flavor, more often used in candies than in cooking. with a musky and bitter flavor, more often used in candies than in cooking.

Mint family anatomy. A leaf of oregano, showing the microscopic oil glands that cover the surfaces of herbs in the mint family. The fragile, exposed glands filled with pungent essential oil offer a first line of defense against predators.

Hyssop Hyssop is an ambiguous name. It is sometimes applied to a kind of plant mentioned in the Bible and much used in the Middle East, a cl.u.s.ter of species characterized by the penetrating quality of true oregano (see below). Hyssop proper, Hyssop is an ambiguous name. It is sometimes applied to a kind of plant mentioned in the Bible and much used in the Middle East, a cl.u.s.ter of species characterized by the penetrating quality of true oregano (see below). Hyssop proper, Hyssopus officinalis, Hyssopus officinalis, is a milder-mannered European herb with fresh-spicy and camphor notes. It was enjoyed in ancient Rome but is now more commonly used in Thai and Vietnamese cooking. Hyssop contributes to the flavors of several alcohols, including Pernod, Ricard, and Chartreuse. is a milder-mannered European herb with fresh-spicy and camphor notes. It was enjoyed in ancient Rome but is now more commonly used in Thai and Vietnamese cooking. Hyssop contributes to the flavors of several alcohols, including Pernod, Ricard, and Chartreuse.

Lavender Lavender is a Mediterranean plant long and widely valued for its tenacious floral-woody perfume (from a mix of flowery linalyl acetate and linalool, plus eucalyptus-like cineole), but more familiar in soaps and candles than in foods; its name comes from the Latin for "wash." Still, the dried blossoms of Lavender is a Mediterranean plant long and widely valued for its tenacious floral-woody perfume (from a mix of flowery linalyl acetate and linalool, plus eucalyptus-like cineole), but more familiar in soaps and candles than in foods; its name comes from the Latin for "wash." Still, the dried blossoms of Lavandula dentata Lavandula dentata are a traditional ingredient in the mixture are a traditional ingredient in the mixture herbes de provence herbes de provence (along with basil, rosemary, marjoram, thyme, and fennel). They and the blossoms of English lavender, (along with basil, rosemary, marjoram, thyme, and fennel). They and the blossoms of English lavender, L. angustifolia, L. angustifolia, are also useful alone when used discreetly as a garnish or to infuse their qualities in sauces and sweets. Spanish lavender ( are also useful alone when used discreetly as a garnish or to infuse their qualities in sauces and sweets. Spanish lavender (L. stoechas) has a complex scent reminiscent of Indian chutneys.

Lemon Balm Lemon or bee balm is an Old World species, Lemon or bee balm is an Old World species, Melissa officinalis, Melissa officinalis, distinguished by its mixture of citrusy and floral terpenes (citronellal and -ol, citral, geraniol). Lemon balm is usually paired with fruit dishes and other sweets. distinguished by its mixture of citrusy and floral terpenes (citronellal and -ol, citral, geraniol). Lemon balm is usually paired with fruit dishes and other sweets.

Marjoram Marjoram was once cla.s.sified as coming from a sister genus of oregano, but now is officially a species of oregano itself, Marjoram was once cla.s.sified as coming from a sister genus of oregano, but now is officially a species of oregano itself, Origanum majorana. Origanum majorana. Whatever the precise family relationship, marjoram differs from the oreganos in having a milder flavor, fresh and green and floral, with little of their penetrating quality. It therefore works well as one component in many herb blends and dishes. Whatever the precise family relationship, marjoram differs from the oreganos in having a milder flavor, fresh and green and floral, with little of their penetrating quality. It therefore works well as one component in many herb blends and dishes.

Mints The true mints are mainly small natives of damp habitats in Europe and Asia. There are about 25 species in the genus The true mints are mainly small natives of damp habitats in Europe and Asia. There are about 25 species in the genus Mentha Mentha and some 600 varieties, though the family tendency to hybridizing and chemical variation confuses the picture. The mints of most interest to the cook are spearmint ( and some 600 varieties, though the family tendency to hybridizing and chemical variation confuses the picture. The mints of most interest to the cook are spearmint (Mentha spicata) and peppermint (M. piperata), which is an ancient hybrid between spearmint and watermint (M. aquatica).

Herbs of the Mint Family

Basil

Ocimum basilic.u.m Ocimum basilic.u.m

Bergamot

Monarda didyma Monarda didyma

h.o.r.ehound

Marrubium vulgare Marrubium vulgare

Hyssop

Hyssopus officinalis Hyssopus officinalis

Lavender

Lavendula dentata, L. angustifolia Lavendula dentata, L. angustifolia

Lemon balm

Melissa officinalis Melissa officinalis

Marjoram

Origanum majorana Origanum majorana