Other Citrus Fruits Lesser-known citrus fruits that are worth knowing about include the following: Lesser-known citrus fruits that are worth knowing about include the following: Bergamot, C. bergamia, C. bergamia, possibly a cross between the sour orange and sweet lime ( possibly a cross between the sour orange and sweet lime (C. limettoides), is grown mainly in Italy for its floral-scented rind oil. It was one of the components of the original eau de cologne developed in 17th-century Germany, and is mainly used in perfumes, tobaccos, and Earl Grey tea.

k.u.mquats, species of the genus Fortunella, Fortunella, are bite-size fruits that are eaten whole, thin rind and all. They are generally tart but not bitter. The calamondin or calamansi, also a diminutive citrus, is probably derived in part from the k.u.mquat. are bite-size fruits that are eaten whole, thin rind and all. They are generally tart but not bitter. The calamondin or calamansi, also a diminutive citrus, is probably derived in part from the k.u.mquat.

The finger lime, Microcitrus australasica, Microcitrus australasica, is a small, elongated citrus relative native to Australia. Its fruit has robust, decorative round juice vesicles that can be pale or pink-red, and a distinctive aroma. is a small, elongated citrus relative native to Australia. Its fruit has robust, decorative round juice vesicles that can be pale or pink-red, and a distinctive aroma.

The makrut or kaffir lime, Citrus hystrix, Citrus hystrix, is common throughout Southeast Asia. Its rough green peel has a lime-like aroma with general citrus and pine notes (from limonene, pinene), and is used to flavor various prepared dishes, as are its intensely lemon-scented leaves (p. 410). is common throughout Southeast Asia. Its rough green peel has a lime-like aroma with general citrus and pine notes (from limonene, pinene), and is used to flavor various prepared dishes, as are its intensely lemon-scented leaves (p. 410).

The tangelo and tangor are modern hybrids between the tangerine and grapefruit, and tangerine and orange, with hybrid flavors as well, and mostly eaten as fresh fruit.

The yuzu, Citrus junos, Citrus junos, possibly a mandarin hybrid, came from China but was developed in j.a.pan beginning around a thousand years ago. The rind of the small yellow-orange fruit is used to flavor various dishes, and to make vinegar, teas, and preserves. It has a complex flavor that includes musky sulfur compounds, and clove and oregano notes (from the phenolics eugenol and carvacrol). possibly a mandarin hybrid, came from China but was developed in j.a.pan beginning around a thousand years ago. The rind of the small yellow-orange fruit is used to flavor various dishes, and to make vinegar, teas, and preserves. It has a complex flavor that includes musky sulfur compounds, and clove and oregano notes (from the phenolics eugenol and carvacrol).

Food Words: Orange, Lemon, Lime Orange, Lemon, LimeThe orange fruit got its modern name from its ancient Sanskrit name, naranga, naranga, and the fruit then lent its name to the vivid color that characterizes it. and the fruit then lent its name to the vivid color that characterizes it. Lemon Lemon and and lime lime both come via Arabic from a Persian word, reflecting the route by which these Asian fruits were brought to the West. both come via Arabic from a Persian word, reflecting the route by which these Asian fruits were brought to the West.

Some Common Tropical Fruits A century ago, only a handful of tropical fruits were available to Europe and North America, and they were luxuries. Nowadays the banana is a common breakfast food and new fruits appear in the market every year. Here are the most familiar.

Banana and Plantain Thanks to their productivity and starchy nutritiousness, bananas and plantains top the roster of world fruit production and trade. The worldwide annual per capita consumption is almost 30 lb/14 kg, and in regions where they're a staple food, individuals consume several hundred kilograms per year. Bananas and plantains are the seedless berries of a tree-sized herb related to the gra.s.ses, Thanks to their productivity and starchy nutritiousness, bananas and plantains top the roster of world fruit production and trade. The worldwide annual per capita consumption is almost 30 lb/14 kg, and in regions where they're a staple food, individuals consume several hundred kilograms per year. Bananas and plantains are the seedless berries of a tree-sized herb related to the gra.s.ses, Musa sapientum, Musa sapientum, which originated in the tropics of Southeast Asia. A banana plant produces a single flower structure with from 1 to 20 "hands" or fruit cl.u.s.ters, as many as 300 "fingers" of individual fruit, each fruit weighing from a couple of ounces to 2 lb/50900 gm. The characteristic curve of long fruits develops because the fruit tip grows upward, against the downward pull of gravity. Bananas and plantains are climacteric fruits, store their energy as starch, and convert some or most of that starch to sugar during ripening. In the dramatic case of the banana, a starch-to-sugar ratio of 25 to 1 in the mature but unripe fruit becomes 1 to 20 in the ripe fruit. which originated in the tropics of Southeast Asia. A banana plant produces a single flower structure with from 1 to 20 "hands" or fruit cl.u.s.ters, as many as 300 "fingers" of individual fruit, each fruit weighing from a couple of ounces to 2 lb/50900 gm. The characteristic curve of long fruits develops because the fruit tip grows upward, against the downward pull of gravity. Bananas and plantains are climacteric fruits, store their energy as starch, and convert some or most of that starch to sugar during ripening. In the dramatic case of the banana, a starch-to-sugar ratio of 25 to 1 in the mature but unripe fruit becomes 1 to 20 in the ripe fruit.

The terms banana banana and and plantain plantain are used for two broad and overlapping categories for the many varieties of these fruits. Bananas are generally sweet dessert varieties, and plantains are starchy cooking varieties. Bananas are very sweet when ripe, their nearly 20% sugar content exceeded only by dates and jujubes, while ripe plantains may be only 6% sugar and 25% starch. Both are picked green and ripened in storage, and are very perishable once ripe thanks to their active metabolism. Bananas develop a meltingly smooth consistency, and a distinctive aroma due primarily to amyl acetate and other esters, and green, floral, and clove (eugenol) notes. Banana acidity also increases during ripening, sometimes twofold, so the flavor becomes more full in several dimensions. Ripe plantains generally retain a dry, starchy texture and can be treated as potatoes are, fried or mashed or cooked in chunks. are used for two broad and overlapping categories for the many varieties of these fruits. Bananas are generally sweet dessert varieties, and plantains are starchy cooking varieties. Bananas are very sweet when ripe, their nearly 20% sugar content exceeded only by dates and jujubes, while ripe plantains may be only 6% sugar and 25% starch. Both are picked green and ripened in storage, and are very perishable once ripe thanks to their active metabolism. Bananas develop a meltingly smooth consistency, and a distinctive aroma due primarily to amyl acetate and other esters, and green, floral, and clove (eugenol) notes. Banana acidity also increases during ripening, sometimes twofold, so the flavor becomes more full in several dimensions. Ripe plantains generally retain a dry, starchy texture and can be treated as potatoes are, fried or mashed or cooked in chunks.

The pulp of these fruits is colored by carotenoids - plantain varieties often more noticeably - and tannins often make the unripe pulp astringent. Bananas and plantains are very p.r.o.ne to brown-black discoloration thanks to browning enzymes and phenolic substances in defensive latex-bearing vessels a.s.sociated with the vascular system. These substances slowly decline by about half during ripening, so once a fruit is ripe, it can be refrigerated with relatively little discoloration of the flesh (the peel will still turn black).

Though a small handful of banana varieties (Grand Nain, Gros Michel, Cavendish) dominate in international trade, there are many interesting Latin American and Asian varieties to be found in ethnic markets, usually shorter, with tinted skin and flesh and intriguingly different flavors.

Cherimoya and Atemoya The cherimoya and atemoya are tree fruits of species in the genus The cherimoya and atemoya are tree fruits of species in the genus Annona, Annona, a native of tropical and subtropical South America (the soursop or guanabana and the custard apple belong to the same genus). They are medium-sized ma.s.ses of fused ovaries with their seeds, enclosed in inedible green or tan skins. Like pears, they can contain gritty stone cells. Cherimoyas and atemoyas are climacteric fruit that store starch and convert it to sugar during ripening; the result is a soft, sweet, low-acid flesh with about double the calories of common temperate fruits. They owe a vaguely banana-like note to esters, and flowery and citrus notes to a number of terpenes. They must be kept warmer than 55F/13C until they ripen, after which they can be refrigerated for a few days. Cherimoyas and atemoyas are eaten with a spoon both chilled and frozen, and are pulped and made into drinks and sorbets. a native of tropical and subtropical South America (the soursop or guanabana and the custard apple belong to the same genus). They are medium-sized ma.s.ses of fused ovaries with their seeds, enclosed in inedible green or tan skins. Like pears, they can contain gritty stone cells. Cherimoyas and atemoyas are climacteric fruit that store starch and convert it to sugar during ripening; the result is a soft, sweet, low-acid flesh with about double the calories of common temperate fruits. They owe a vaguely banana-like note to esters, and flowery and citrus notes to a number of terpenes. They must be kept warmer than 55F/13C until they ripen, after which they can be refrigerated for a few days. Cherimoyas and atemoyas are eaten with a spoon both chilled and frozen, and are pulped and made into drinks and sorbets.

Durian Durian is the large, thorn-covered fruit of a tree, Durian is the large, thorn-covered fruit of a tree, Durio zibethinus, Durio zibethinus, that's a native of Southeast Asia and cultivated mainly in Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia. Durian is notorious for its very unfruit-like aroma, a powerful smell that can be reminiscent of onions, cheese, and meat at various stages of decay! At the same time many people prize it for its delicious flavor and creamy, custard-like texture. The armored ma.s.s of fused ovaries, each containing a seed, can weigh more than 13 lb/6 kg, and apparently evolved to appeal to elephants, tigers, pigs, and other large jungle creatures, which are drawn to it by its battery of powerful sulfur compounds, including some found in onions, garlic, overripe cheese, skunk spray, and rotten eggs. These compounds are mainly found in the outer rind, while the fleshy segments surrounding the seeds are more conventionally fruity and savory, with an especially high content of sugars and other dissolved solids (36%). Durian is eaten as is, made into drinks, candies, and cakes, and incorporated into rice and vegetable dishes. It's also fermented to make it even stronger-tasting (Malaysian that's a native of Southeast Asia and cultivated mainly in Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia. Durian is notorious for its very unfruit-like aroma, a powerful smell that can be reminiscent of onions, cheese, and meat at various stages of decay! At the same time many people prize it for its delicious flavor and creamy, custard-like texture. The armored ma.s.s of fused ovaries, each containing a seed, can weigh more than 13 lb/6 kg, and apparently evolved to appeal to elephants, tigers, pigs, and other large jungle creatures, which are drawn to it by its battery of powerful sulfur compounds, including some found in onions, garlic, overripe cheese, skunk spray, and rotten eggs. These compounds are mainly found in the outer rind, while the fleshy segments surrounding the seeds are more conventionally fruity and savory, with an especially high content of sugars and other dissolved solids (36%). Durian is eaten as is, made into drinks, candies, and cakes, and incorporated into rice and vegetable dishes. It's also fermented to make it even stronger-tasting (Malaysian tempoyak tempoyak).

Guava and Feijoa Guavas are the large berries of a bush or small tree in the genus Guavas are the large berries of a bush or small tree in the genus Psidium, Psidium, a native of the tropical Americas, and a member of the myrtle family, which includes the clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, and allspice trees. True to their family background, they have a strong, spicy/musky aroma (from cinnamate esters and some sulfur compounds). Their flesh contains hundreds of small seeds and many gritty stone cells, so guavas are most often used to make purees, juices, syrups, and preserves. The Spanish colonizers exploited their high pectin content to make a New World version of quince paste. Guavas are remarkable for a vitamin C content that can reach 1 gram per 100 grams, with much of it concentrated near and in the thin, fragile peel. a native of the tropical Americas, and a member of the myrtle family, which includes the clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, and allspice trees. True to their family background, they have a strong, spicy/musky aroma (from cinnamate esters and some sulfur compounds). Their flesh contains hundreds of small seeds and many gritty stone cells, so guavas are most often used to make purees, juices, syrups, and preserves. The Spanish colonizers exploited their high pectin content to make a New World version of quince paste. Guavas are remarkable for a vitamin C content that can reach 1 gram per 100 grams, with much of it concentrated near and in the thin, fragile peel.

The so-called pineapple guava, or feijoa, comes from the shrub Feijoa sellowiana, Feijoa sellowiana, also a South American member of the myrtle family. It shares a similar size and structure and some flavor elements with guava, but its strong aroma is distinctive and less complex, dominated by a particular group of esters (from benzoic acid). It too is usually pulped and strained for use in liquid preparations. also a South American member of the myrtle family. It shares a similar size and structure and some flavor elements with guava, but its strong aroma is distinctive and less complex, dominated by a particular group of esters (from benzoic acid). It too is usually pulped and strained for use in liquid preparations.

Breadfruit and Jackfruit Breadfruit and jackfruit are fruits of two species of the Asian genus Breadfruit and jackfruit are fruits of two species of the Asian genus Artocarpus, Artocarpus, a relative of the mulberry and fig, and resemble each other in structure. They're very large a.s.semblies of fused ovaries and their seeds; breadfruits may reach 9 lb/4 kg, and jackfruits 10 times that weight. Jackfruit, a native of India, has a conventional composition for a fruit - mostly water, with 8% sugar and 4% starch - and develops a strong, complex aroma with musky, berry, pineapple, and caramel notes. It's eaten raw and in ice creams, as well as dried, preserved, and pickled. Breadfruit, whose origins in the Pacific islands remain unclear, gets its name from its very high starch content, as much as 65% by weight (with 18% sugar and just 10% water) when mature but unripe, and when cooked into a dry, absorbent ma.s.s. It's a staple food in the South Pacific and in the Caribbean, where it was taken by Captain Bligh of the notorious a relative of the mulberry and fig, and resemble each other in structure. They're very large a.s.semblies of fused ovaries and their seeds; breadfruits may reach 9 lb/4 kg, and jackfruits 10 times that weight. Jackfruit, a native of India, has a conventional composition for a fruit - mostly water, with 8% sugar and 4% starch - and develops a strong, complex aroma with musky, berry, pineapple, and caramel notes. It's eaten raw and in ice creams, as well as dried, preserved, and pickled. Breadfruit, whose origins in the Pacific islands remain unclear, gets its name from its very high starch content, as much as 65% by weight (with 18% sugar and just 10% water) when mature but unripe, and when cooked into a dry, absorbent ma.s.s. It's a staple food in the South Pacific and in the Caribbean, where it was taken by Captain Bligh of the notorious Bounty Bounty mutiny. It may be boiled, roasted, fried, or fermented into a sour paste, then dried and ground into flour. Ripe breadfruit is sweet and soft, even semiliquid, and made into desserts. mutiny. It may be boiled, roasted, fried, or fermented into a sour paste, then dried and ground into flour. Ripe breadfruit is sweet and soft, even semiliquid, and made into desserts.

Lychee Lychees are subtropical Asian tree fruits (from Lychees are subtropical Asian tree fruits (from Litchi chinensis Litchi chinensis) the size of a small plum, with a dry, loose skin and a large seed. The edible portion is its fleshy seed covering, or aril, which is pale white, sweet, and distinctively floral due to the presence of a number of terpenes (rose oxide, linalool, geraniol; Gewurztraminer grapes and wine share many of the same notes). Lychees with small, undeveloped seeds are called "chicken-tongue" fruit and are prized because there's more flesh than seed. Lychees don't improve in flavor once taken from the tree. A common problem with lychees is a brown discoloration of the flesh due to drying out or chilling injury. They're best held at cool room temperatures in a loose plastic bag. When cooked, fresh lychees sometimes develop a pink undertone as phenolic aggregates are broken apart and converted into anthocyanin pigments (p. 281). They're eaten fresh, canned in syrup, made into drinks, sauces, and preserves, cooked briefly and served with meats and seafood, and frozen into sorbets and ice creams. "Lychee nuts" are the dried fruits, not the seeds.

Rambutans, longans, and pulasans are all arils of Asian fruits in the same family as the lychee (the Sapindaceae), and have similar qualities.

Mango Mangoes are the succulent, aromatic fruits of an Asian tree, Mangoes are the succulent, aromatic fruits of an Asian tree, Mangifera indica, Mangifera indica, a distant relative of the pistachio and cashew trees, that has been cultivated for many thousands of years. There are hundreds of varieties with very different qualities, including flavor and degrees of fibrousness and astringency. The mango skin contains an irritant and allergenic phenolic compound similar to that in the cashew. Their deep orange color comes from carotenoid pigments, mainly betacarotene. Mangoes are climacteric fruits that acc.u.mulate starch, so they can be picked green and will sweeten and soften as they ripen, from the seed outwards. Their flavor is especially complex, and may be dominated by the compounds that characterize peaches and coconuts (lactones), generically fruity esters, medicinal or even turpentiny terpenes, and caramel notes. Green mangoes are very tart, and are made into pickles as well as dried and ground to make an acidifying powder (Hindi a distant relative of the pistachio and cashew trees, that has been cultivated for many thousands of years. There are hundreds of varieties with very different qualities, including flavor and degrees of fibrousness and astringency. The mango skin contains an irritant and allergenic phenolic compound similar to that in the cashew. Their deep orange color comes from carotenoid pigments, mainly betacarotene. Mangoes are climacteric fruits that acc.u.mulate starch, so they can be picked green and will sweeten and soften as they ripen, from the seed outwards. Their flavor is especially complex, and may be dominated by the compounds that characterize peaches and coconuts (lactones), generically fruity esters, medicinal or even turpentiny terpenes, and caramel notes. Green mangoes are very tart, and are made into pickles as well as dried and ground to make an acidifying powder (Hindi amchur amchur). Mango pickles were so admired in 18th-century England that the fruit lent its name to the preparation and to other suitable materials: hence "mango peppers."

Mangosteen The mangosteen is the medium-sized, leathery-skinned fruit of an Asian tree, G The mangosteen is the medium-sized, leathery-skinned fruit of an Asian tree, G arcinia mangostana. arcinia mangostana. Its white flesh consists of the arils around several seeds, and is moist and has a pleasing sweet-tart balance, with a delicate, fruity and flowery aroma, something like a lychee. It's usually eaten fresh or in preserves, and is also canned. Its white flesh consists of the arils around several seeds, and is moist and has a pleasing sweet-tart balance, with a delicate, fruity and flowery aroma, something like a lychee. It's usually eaten fresh or in preserves, and is also canned.

Food Words: Tropical FruitsMany of our words for tropical fruits come from the peoples among whom Western travelers first encountered them. Banana Banana comes from several West African languages, comes from several West African languages, mango mango from south Indian Tamil, from south Indian Tamil, papaya papaya from Carib, from Carib, durian durian from Malay (a word meaning "thorn"). from Malay (a word meaning "thorn").

Papaya Papayas are species of the genus Papayas are species of the genus Carica, Carica, a native of the American tropics that looks like a small tree but is actually a large herbaceous plant. The common papaya, a native of the American tropics that looks like a small tree but is actually a large herbaceous plant. The common papaya, C. papaya, C. papaya, consists of a thickened ovary wall, orange to orange-red with carotenoid pigments, and a few dark seeds in a large central cavity. It is a climacteric fruit that doesn't store any starch. Ripening begins at the center and progresses outward, and causes a manyfold increase in carotenoid pigments and aroma molecules, as well as a marked softening. Softening causes the apparent sweetness to increase even though the actual sugar content doesn't change (the sugars are more readily released from the softened tissue). A ripe papaya is a low-acid fruit with a delicate, flowery aroma thanks to terpenes, and a touch of cabbage-like pungency due to the surprising presence of isothiocyanates (p. 321). These compounds are especially concentrated in the seeds, which can be dried and used as a mildly mustardy seasoning. consists of a thickened ovary wall, orange to orange-red with carotenoid pigments, and a few dark seeds in a large central cavity. It is a climacteric fruit that doesn't store any starch. Ripening begins at the center and progresses outward, and causes a manyfold increase in carotenoid pigments and aroma molecules, as well as a marked softening. Softening causes the apparent sweetness to increase even though the actual sugar content doesn't change (the sugars are more readily released from the softened tissue). A ripe papaya is a low-acid fruit with a delicate, flowery aroma thanks to terpenes, and a touch of cabbage-like pungency due to the surprising presence of isothiocyanates (p. 321). These compounds are especially concentrated in the seeds, which can be dried and used as a mildly mustardy seasoning.

Unripe, crisp green papaya is made into salads and pickles. The green fruit contains vessels of milky latex rich in the protein-digesting enzyme papain, which is found in some meat tenderizers. Papain levels drop during ripening, but can still cause texture and taste problems like those caused by the pineapple enzyme bromelain (p. 384).

Two other papaya species can be found in markets. The large cool-climate mountain papaya, C. p.u.b.escens, C. p.u.b.escens, is less sweet than the lowland papaya, but richer in papain and in carotenoid pigments, often including lycopene, which gives its flesh a reddish tinge. The babaco, is less sweet than the lowland papaya, but richer in papain and in carotenoid pigments, often including lycopene, which gives its flesh a reddish tinge. The babaco, C. pentagona, C. pentagona, is apparently a natural hybrid, and has cream-colored, tart, seedless flesh. is apparently a natural hybrid, and has cream-colored, tart, seedless flesh.

Pa.s.sion Fruit, Granadilla Pa.s.sion fruits and the granadilla come from about a dozen species of vines of the genera Pa.s.sion fruits and the granadilla come from about a dozen species of vines of the genera Pa.s.si-flora Pa.s.si-flora and and Tacsonia, Tacsonia, natives of tropical lowlands and subtropical highlands in South America. They consist of a brittle ( natives of tropical lowlands and subtropical highlands in South America. They consist of a brittle (Pa.s.si-flora) or soft (Tacsonia) outer husk, with a ma.s.s of hard seeds embedded in pulpy seed coverings, or arils. The arils are the only edible portion, and make up barely a third of the fruit weight. Though the pulp is spa.r.s.e, its flavor is concentrated and actually benefits from dilution. Pa.s.sion fruits are unusual for their relatively high acid content, mainly citric - more than 2% of the pulp weight in purple-skinned types, and double that in most yellow ones - and their strong, penetrating aroma, which appears to be a complex mixture of fruity and flowery notes (esters, peach-like lactones, violet-like ionone), and unusual musky notes (from sulfur compounds like those in black currants and sauvignon blanc wines). Pa.s.sion fruit pulp is used mainly to make beverages, ices, and sauces, with the milder purple P. edulis P. edulis generally consumed fresh and the stronger yellow generally consumed fresh and the stronger yellow P. edulis var. flavicarpa P. edulis var. flavicarpa processed (an early commercial application was Hawaiian punch). processed (an early commercial application was Hawaiian punch).

Meat-Eating Fruits: The Puzzle of Plant ProteasesAt first glance, it seems strange that fruits should contain meat-and gelatin-digesting enzymes, the molecules that prevent cooks from making jellies with those raw fruits. Of course there are a few carnivorous plants that trap insects and other small creatures in digestive juices. And in some plant parts, similar enzymes probably provide protection against attack by insects and larger animals, whose insides they can irritate or injure. But fruits are meant to be eaten by animals so that the animals will disperse the plant's seeds. So why fill them with proteases?In the cases of papaya, pineapple, melon, fig, and kiwi, the enzymes may limit the number of fruits that any one animal eats: too many and the animal's digestive system suffers. Another intriguing suggestion is that in moderation, the enzymes actually benefit seed-dispersing animals by ridding them of intestinal parasites. Some tropical peoples use fig and papaya latex for this purpose, and it's known that the enzymes do indeed dissolve live tapeworms.Flavor Elements in Some Common FruitsThe sugar and acid contents of fruits vary, and depend largely on ripeness. The figures below generally represent commercial reality rather than the ideal, and are meant to provide a rough way to compare the qualities of different fruits. Generally, the sweeter a fruit is, the tastier it is; but even a sweet fruit will seem one-dimensional without some counterbalancing acidity. The aroma notes listed represent volatile chemicals that flavor chemists have found in the fruit but that don't smell simply like the fruit; they have qualities of their own that contribute to the overall flavor. Blank entries indicate a lack of information, not a lack of interesting aroma!

Pineapple Pineapples are the large, pinecone-like fruit of Pineapples are the large, pinecone-like fruit of Ananas comosus, Ananas comosus, a member of the bromeliad family (which includes bromeliad houseplants) and native to tropical but arid South America. ( a member of the bromeliad family (which includes bromeliad houseplants) and native to tropical but arid South America. (Ananas comes from a Guarani Indian word for the fruit; comes from a Guarani Indian word for the fruit; pineapple pineapple from the Spanish from the Spanish pina pina due to its resemblance to the similarly composite pinecone.) The plant had already spread to the Caribbean before Columbus saw it there in 1493, and modern breeding efforts began shortly thereafter in French and Dutch gla.s.shouses. due to its resemblance to the similarly composite pinecone.) The plant had already spread to the Caribbean before Columbus saw it there in 1493, and modern breeding efforts began shortly thereafter in French and Dutch gla.s.shouses.

Pineapples consist of spirals of separate seedless fruitlets, between 100 and 200 of which fuse together and become joined to a central core. During the fusing process, bacteria and yeasts become incorporated in the interior and may later cause hidden spoilage. The fruit doesn't store starch, is not a climacteric fruit, and will not sweeten or improve in flavor once picked, though it will soften. Fully ripe pineapples don't ship well, so exported pineapples are harvested early, with as little as half the sugar content that they're capable of developing, and a fraction of the aroma. Brown or black regions in the interior are caused by chilling injury during shipment or storage; translucent areas seem to be caused by growing conditions that load the fruit cell walls with sugars. The quality of pineapples from the subtropics is less reliable than that of fruit from near the equator, where seasonal and climatic variation is minimal.

Pineapple Flavor Pineapples are remarkable for the intensity of their flavor, the experience of which the 19th-century English writer Charles Lamb described as "almost too transcendent...a pleasure bordering on pain, from the fierceness and insanity of her relish." At their best they are both very sweet and quite tart (from citric acid), and with a rich aroma provided by a complex mixture of fruity esters, pungent sulfur compounds, essences of vanilla and clove (vanillin, eugenol), and several oxygen-containing carbon rings with caramel and sherry overtones. A given pineapple has many different flavor zones. The fruitlets near the base form first and are therefore the oldest and sweetest, and the acidity of the flesh doubles from the core to the surface. Thanks to their a.s.sertive flavor and firm, somewhat fibrous flesh, pineapples can be cut into chunks and baked, grilled, or fried. They have an affinity for the flavors of b.u.t.ter and caramel and work well in baked goods, as well as various raw preparations (salsas, drinks, sorbets). Pineapples are remarkable for the intensity of their flavor, the experience of which the 19th-century English writer Charles Lamb described as "almost too transcendent...a pleasure bordering on pain, from the fierceness and insanity of her relish." At their best they are both very sweet and quite tart (from citric acid), and with a rich aroma provided by a complex mixture of fruity esters, pungent sulfur compounds, essences of vanilla and clove (vanillin, eugenol), and several oxygen-containing carbon rings with caramel and sherry overtones. A given pineapple has many different flavor zones. The fruitlets near the base form first and are therefore the oldest and sweetest, and the acidity of the flesh doubles from the core to the surface. Thanks to their a.s.sertive flavor and firm, somewhat fibrous flesh, pineapples can be cut into chunks and baked, grilled, or fried. They have an affinity for the flavors of b.u.t.ter and caramel and work well in baked goods, as well as various raw preparations (salsas, drinks, sorbets).

Pineapple Enzymes Pineapples contain several active protein-digesting enzymes that are used in meat tenderizers, but can cause problems in other prepared dishes. (In medicine they have been exploited as a means of cleaning burns and other wounds, and they help control inflammatory diseases in animals.) Bromelain, the major enzyme, will break down gelatin, so pineapple for gelatin-based desserts must be cooked first, to inactivate the enzyme. And if incorporated into a mixture containing milk or cream, bromelain will break down the casein proteins and produce bitter-tasting protein fragments. Again, precooking the pineapple will prevent this. Pineapples contain several active protein-digesting enzymes that are used in meat tenderizers, but can cause problems in other prepared dishes. (In medicine they have been exploited as a means of cleaning burns and other wounds, and they help control inflammatory diseases in animals.) Bromelain, the major enzyme, will break down gelatin, so pineapple for gelatin-based desserts must be cooked first, to inactivate the enzyme. And if incorporated into a mixture containing milk or cream, bromelain will break down the casein proteins and produce bitter-tasting protein fragments. Again, precooking the pineapple will prevent this.

Star Fruit Star fruit or carambola come from the small Southeast Asian tree Star fruit or carambola come from the small Southeast Asian tree Aver-rhoa carambola, Aver-rhoa carambola, a member of the wood sorrel ( a member of the wood sorrel (Oxalis) family. These medium-sized, yellowish fruits are notable for their starlike cross section, a decorative touch in salads and garnishes, for an aroma with notes of Concord grapes and quince, and for the presence of oxalic acid, mainly in the five ridges. When unripe and especially rich in oxalic acid, star fruit are sourly reminiscent of similarly endowed sorrel (p. 411) and are used to clean and polish metal! Star fruit are colored by carotenoid pigments, including beta-carotene. A relative, the bilimbi, is too tart to eat fresh and in the tropics is made into preserves and drinks.

Chapter 8.

Flavorings From Plants Herbs and Spices, Tea and Coffee

The Nature of Flavor and Flavorings Flavor Is Part Taste, Mostly SmellThe Evolving World of Taste and SmellFlavorings Are Chemical WeaponsTurning Weapons into Pleasures: Just Add Food The Chemistry and Qualities of Herbs and Spices Most Flavorings Resemble OilsThe Flavor of an Herb or Spice Is Several Flavors CombinedFlavor Families: The TerpenesFlavor Families: The PhenolicsFlavor Families: Pungent ChemicalsWhy Pain Can Be PleasurableHerbs, Spices, and Health Handling and Storing Herbs and Spices Preserving Aroma CompoundsStoring Fresh HerbsDrying Fresh Herbs Cooking with Herbs and Spices Flavor ExtractionMarinades and RubsHerbs and Spices as Coatings.e.xtracts: Flavored Oils, Vinegars, AlcoholsFlavor EvolutionHerbs and Spices as Thickeners A Survey of Common Herbs The Mint FamilyThe Carrot FamilyThe Laurel FamilyOther Common Herbs A Survey of Temperate-Climate Spices The Carrot FamilyThe Cabbage Family: Pungent Mustards, Horseradish, WasabiThe Bean Family: Licorice and FenugreekChillisOther Temperate-Climate Spices A Survey of Tropical Spices Tea and Coffee CaffeineTea, Coffee, and HealthWater for Making Tea and CoffeeTeaCoffee Wood Smoke and Charred Wood The Chemistry of Burning WoodLiquid Smoke Herbs and spices are ingredients that we use to add flavor to foods and drinks. Herbs are plant leaves, fresh or dried, and spices are bits of dry seed, bark, and root. We consume them in tiny amounts, and they have practically no nutritional value. Yet from earliest times, these aromatic bits have been among the most highly prized and costly of all ingredients. In the ancient world they were more than mere foods: they were thought to have medicinal and even transcendental properties. Sacrificial fires wafted the fumes of aromatics upward to please the G.o.ds, and at the same time offered earth-bound humans a whiff of heaven. Spices came from the ends of the earth, from Arabia and legendary lands to the east. The growing hunger for the aromas of paradise helped drive the European exploration of the globe, the discovery of the Americas, and the biological and cultural exchange that helped shape the modern world.

Few people today think of herbs and spices as emissaries from paradise or to heaven. Yet they're more popular than ever: because herbs and spices do indeed bring other worlds to our table. They mark the foods of different cultures with distinctive flavors, and provide us a taste of Morocco at one meal and Thailand the next. They help us recapture the kind of sensory variety that our ancestors enjoyed in foods before agriculture made eating both more reliable and more monotonous. And because smell is one of the senses through which we experience our immediate surroundings, herbs and spices delight by lending our foods hints reminiscent of the forest, the meadow, the flower garden, the seacoast. They can conjure a familiar part of the natural world in a bite or sip.

This chapter surveys herbs, spices, and three other important flavorings derived from plants. Tea and coffee are such prominent ingredients in their own right that we don't think of them as herb or spice, but that's essentially what they are: tea is a dried leaf and coffee a roasted seed, and we use them to flavor water (and infuse it with a useful drug, caffeine). And wood smoke is a flavoring created when intense heat breaks plant tissues down into some of the same aromatics found in true spices.

A Brief History of SpicesThe story of spices is a colorful one, and has been told many times. It turned out that tropical Asia was especially rich in spice plants. To the peoples of the Mediterranean and Europe, who depended on Arab traders for both the spices and information about them, this meant that cinnamon and pepper and ginger were rare treasures from fabled lands.The Romans knew a number of Eastern spices but in cooking used mainly pepper. A thousand years later, Arab cultural influence introduced other spices to wealthy medieval tables throughout Europe, and demand for them grew with the middle cla.s.ses. Medieval sauces often call for a half-dozen spices, usually beginning with cinnamon, ginger, and grains of paradise. The Turkish control of supply routes and prices impelled Portugal and Spain to search for a new sea route to Asia; Columbus reached the Americas, the home of chillis and vanilla, in 1492, and Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498. The Portuguese and then the Spanish controlled the Spice Islands and the trade in nutmeg and cloves until around 1600, when the Dutch embarked on two centuries of brutally efficient control.As spices were planted in other tropical countries and became cheaper and more commonly available, they slowly faded from their former prominence in European dishes, persisting mainly in sweets. But at the end of the 20th century, the consumption of herbs and spices rose sharply in the West. In the United States it tripled between 1965 and 2000 (to about 4 grams per day per person), thanks to a growing appreciation of Asian and Latin American foods, and especially the spiciness of "hot" chillis.

The Nature of Flavor and Flavorings Flavor is Part Taste, Mostly Smell The function of herbs and spices is to add flavor to our foods. Flavor is a composite quality, a combination of sensations from the taste buds in our mouth and the odor receptors in the upper reaches of our nose. And these sensations are chemical in nature: we taste tastes and smell odors when our receptors are triggered by specific chemicals in foods. There are only a handful of different tastes - sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory or umami (p. 342), while there are many thousands of different odors. It's odor molecules that make an apple "taste" like an apple, not like a pear or radish. If our nose is blocked by a cold or pinching fingers, it's hard to tell the difference between an apple and a pear. So most of what we experience as flavor is odor, or aroma. Herbs and spices heighten flavor by adding their characteristic aroma molecules. (The exceptions to this rule are the pungent spices and herbs, which stimulate and irritate nerves in the mouth; seep. 394.) Odors and the Suggestiveness of Volatility The aroma chemicals of herbs and spices are The aroma chemicals of herbs and spices are volatile volatile: that is, they're small and light enough to evaporate from their source and fly through the air, which allows them to rise with our breath into the nose, where we can detect them. High temperatures make volatile chemicals more volatile, so heating herbs and spices liberates more of their aroma molecules and fills the air with their odor. Unlike most of the objects that we sense around us, which we see or touch or hear, aromas are an invisible, intangible presence. To cultures that knew nothing of molecules and odor receptors, this ethereal, penetrating quality suggested a realm of invisible beings and powers. So herbs and spices became important in the sacrificial fires and incense of religious ceremonies; they were offerings to the G.o.ds, a way of evoking their presence and imagining their heaven. Perfumes - a word that comes from the Latin for "through fire" - have long been the source of a similarly mysterious appeal.

The Aromas of Holiness and ParadiseIn the religions of the ancient world, spices were a means by which spiritual fulfillment could be symbolized and experienced as a form of sensuous delight.A garden inclosed is my sister, my spouse; a spring shut up, a fountain sealed.Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard, Spikenard and saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes, with all the chief spices: A fountain of gardens, a well of living waters, and streams from Lebanon. Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my garden, that the spices thereof may flow out.- Song of Solomon, 4:1215Allah will deliver them from the evil of that day and make their faces shine with joy. He will reward them for their steadfastness with robes of silk and the delights of Paradise.... They shall be served with silver dishes, and beakers as large as goblets; silver goblets which they themselves shall measure: and cups brim-full with ginger-flavored water from the Fount of Selsabil.- The Koran, "Man," 76: 1115 The Evolving World of Taste and Smell We humans are animals, and for all animals, the sense of smell does far more than provide information about a mouthful of food. Smell detects whatever volatile molecules are in the air. It therefore tells an animal about its surroundings: the air, the ground, the plants growing in the ground, other animals moving nearby that might be enemies, mates, or a meal. This more general role explains why we're sensitive to aroma notes in foods that are reminiscent of the world: wood, stone, soil, air, animals, flowers, dry gra.s.s, the seacoast and the forest. It's also essential for animals to learn from experience, and therefore to a.s.sociate particular sensations with the situations they accompany. This may be why odors are so evocative of memories and the emotions a.s.sociated with them.

The Variety of Gathered Foods, the Monotony of Agriculture Monotony of Agriculture Our earliest human ancestors were omnivores: they ate whatever they could find worth eating on the African savanna, from meat sc.r.a.ps on an animal carca.s.s to nuts, fruits, leaves, and tubers. They relied on taste and smell to judge whether a new object was edible - sweetness meant nourishing sugars, bitterness toxic alkaloids, foulness dangerous decay - and to help identify and recall the effects of objects they had encountered before. And they ate a varied diet that probably included several hundred different kinds of foods. They had a lot of flavors to keep track of. Our earliest human ancestors were omnivores: they ate whatever they could find worth eating on the African savanna, from meat sc.r.a.ps on an animal carca.s.s to nuts, fruits, leaves, and tubers. They relied on taste and smell to judge whether a new object was edible - sweetness meant nourishing sugars, bitterness toxic alkaloids, foulness dangerous decay - and to help identify and recall the effects of objects they had encountered before. And they ate a varied diet that probably included several hundred different kinds of foods. They had a lot of flavors to keep track of.

When humans developed agriculture around 10,000 years ago, they traded their diverse but chancy diet for a more predictable and monotonous one. Now they lived largely on wheat, barley, rice, and corn, all concentrated sources of energy and protein, and all relatively bland. They had very few flavors to keep track of. But they still had their senses of taste and smell.

Spices Haven't Always Gone with FoodsIn the time of cla.s.sical Greece and Rome, when spices were much used in religious ceremonies and in perfumes, not everyone thought that they also belong in foods!The question may be raised, why aromatics and other fragrant things, while they give a pleasant taste to wine, do not have this effect on any other article of food. In all cases, they spoil food, whether it be cooked or not.- Theophrastus, De causis plantarum De causis plantarum, 3rd century BCE BCEToday we need "supplements" for meat. We mix oil, wine, honey, fish paste, vinegar, with Syrian and Arabian spices, as though we were really embalming a corpse for burial.- Plutarch, Moralia Moralia, 2nd century CE CE Flavorings Provide Stimulation and Play One distinctly human characteristic is a drive to explore and manipulate the world of natural materials around us, to change those materials to suit our needs and interests. And these needs and interests include the stimulation of our senses, the creation of sensory patterns that engage our brains. After the development of agriculture and its radically simplified diet, our ancestors found ways to give our taste buds and nose more to experience again. One way was to make use of plant parts that are especially concentrated sources of flavor. Herbs and spices made it possible not only to give bland foods more flavor, but to give them more varied flavors, to ornament foods and highlight flavor for flavor's sake. One distinctly human characteristic is a drive to explore and manipulate the world of natural materials around us, to change those materials to suit our needs and interests. And these needs and interests include the stimulation of our senses, the creation of sensory patterns that engage our brains. After the development of agriculture and its radically simplified diet, our ancestors found ways to give our taste buds and nose more to experience again. One way was to make use of plant parts that are especially concentrated sources of flavor. Herbs and spices made it possible not only to give bland foods more flavor, but to give them more varied flavors, to ornament foods and highlight flavor for flavor's sake.

Flavorings are Chemical Weapons And why are some plants' parts especially potent, intense sources of flavor? What role do the chemicals that give them their flavor play in the lives of the plants themselves?

One simple clue is their very potency. Try the experiment of chewing on an oregano leaf, or a clove, or a vanilla bean. The result is far from pleasurable! When eaten as is, most spices and herbs are acrid, irritating, numbing. And the chemicals responsible for these sensations are actually toxic. The purified essence of oregano and of thyme can be bought from chemical supply companies, and come with bright warning labels: these chemicals damage skin and lungs, so don't touch or inhale. This is precisely the primary function of these chemicals: to make the plants that produce them obnoxious and therefore resistant to attack by animals or microbes. The flavors of herbs and spices are defensive chemical weapons that are released from plant cells when the plant is chewed on. Their volatility gives them the advantage of counterattacking through the air, not just on direct contact, and of being a warning signal that can train some animals to be deterred by smell alone.

Turning Weapons Into Pleasures: Just Add Food And yet humans have come to prize these weapons that are meant to repel us. What makes herbs and spices not only nontoxic and edible but delicious is a simple principle of cooking: dilution. If we bite into an intact leaf of oregano or a peppercorn, the concentrated dose of defensive chemicals overwhelms and irritates our senses; but those same chemicals diffused throughout a dish of other foods - a few milligrams in a pound or two - stimulate without overwhelming. They add favors that our grains and meats don't have, and make those foods more complex and appealing.

The Chemistry and Qualities Of Herbs and Spices Most Flavorings Resemble Oils The flavorful material in an herb or spice is traditionally called its essential oil. The term reflects an important practical fact: aroma chemicals are more similar to oils and fats than they are to water, and are therefore more soluble in oil than they are in water (p. 797). This is why cooks make prepared flavor extracts by infusing herbs and spices in oil, not water. They do infuse herbs in watery vinegar and in alcohols, but both alcohol and vinegar's acetic acid are small cousins of fat molecules, and help dissolve more aromatics than plain water could. The defensive aroma chemicals can have disruptive effects on a plant's own cells as well as on predators, so plants take care to isolate them from their inner workings. Herbs and spices stockpile their aroma chemicals in specialized oil-storage cells, in glands on the surfaces of leaves, or in channels that open up between cells. Some dry spices are as much as 15% essential oil by weight, and many are 510%. Fresh and dry herbs generally contain much less, around 1%, fresh herbs because their water content is much higher, and dry herbs because they lose aroma chemicals in the drying process.

The Flavor of an Herb or Spice is Several Flavors Combined As we've seen many times and in many foods, flavor is a composite quality. A ripe fruit may contain hundreds of different aromatic compounds; and the same goes for a roast. Though we tend to think of a particular herb or spice as having its own distinctive flavor, it too is always a composite of several different aroma compounds. Sometimes one of those compounds predominates and provides the main character - as in cloves, cinnamon, anise, thyme - but often it's the mixture that creates the character, and that makes a spice well suited to serve as a unifying bridge among several different ingredients. Coriander seed, for example, is simultaneously flowery and lemony; bay leaf combines eucalyptus, clove, pine, and flowery notes. It can be fascinating - and useful - to taste spices a.n.a.lytically, trying to perceive the separate components and how their flavors are built. Terms from perfumery can be helpful: there are "top notes," perceived right away, ethereal and quick to fade; there are "mid-notes," the main flavors; and there are "bottom notes," which are slow to develop and which persist. The charts on pp. 392 and 393 list the prominent aroma components in a selection of herbs and spices. There are two particular chemical families that contribute many of the aroma compounds in herbs and spices.

Flavor Families: The Terpenes Terpene compounds are constructed from a zigzag building block of five carbon atoms, which turns out to be amazingly versatile and can be combined, twisted, and decorated into tens of thousands of different molecules. Plants usually produce a mixture of defensive terpenes. They are characteristic of the needles and bark of coniferous trees, of citrus fruits (p. 374), and of flowers, and provide pine-like, citrusy, floral, leaf-like, and "fresh" notes to the overall flavor of many herbs and spices. As a family, terpenes tend to be especially volatile and reactive. This means that they're often the first molecules to reach the nose, and provide the initial impression of these lighter, more ethereal notes. It also means that they're readily boiled off or modified by even brief cooking, which is why these fresh, light notes disappear. If desired, they can be restored to a cooked dish by adding a new dose of the herb or spice just before serving. compounds are constructed from a zigzag building block of five carbon atoms, which turns out to be amazingly versatile and can be combined, twisted, and decorated into tens of thousands of different molecules. Plants usually produce a mixture of defensive terpenes. They are characteristic of the needles and bark of coniferous trees, of citrus fruits (p. 374), and of flowers, and provide pine-like, citrusy, floral, leaf-like, and "fresh" notes to the overall flavor of many herbs and spices. As a family, terpenes tend to be especially volatile and reactive. This means that they're often the first molecules to reach the nose, and provide the initial impression of these lighter, more ethereal notes. It also means that they're readily boiled off or modified by even brief cooking, which is why these fresh, light notes disappear. If desired, they can be restored to a cooked dish by adding a new dose of the herb or spice just before serving.

Flavor Families: The Phenolics Phenolic compounds are constructed from a simple closed ring of six carbon atoms and at least one fragment of a water molecule (an oxygen-hydrogen combination). Single rings can then be modified by adding other atoms to one or more of the carbons, and two or more rings can be linked together to form polyphenolic compounds, including anthocyanin pigments and lignin. Unlike the terpene aromatics, which often have a generic quality to them, the phenolic aromatics are distinctive and define the flavor of such spices as cloves, cinnamon, anise, and vanilla, as well as the herbs thyme and oregano. The pungent components of chillis, black pepper, and ginger are also synthesized from a phenolic base.

Examples of terpene aroma compounds. The black dots show the backbone of carbon atoms. Limonene and menthol are distinctive, while myrcene provides a background note in a number of spices and herbs.

Thanks to the water fragment on the carbon ring, phenolic compounds are somewhat more soluble in water than most terpenes. They tend to be more persistent in foods and in the mouth as we eat and taste.

Examples of phenolic aroma compounds.

Flavor Families: Important Terpenes and Phenolics and Their Aromas

Chemical Compound

Aroma Aroma

Terpenes

Pinenes

Pine needles and bark Pine needles and bark

Limonene, terpinene, citral

Citrus fruits Citrus fruits

Geraniol

Roses Roses

Linalool

Lily of the valley Lily of the valley

Cineole

Eucalyptus Eucalyptus

Menthol and menthone

Peppermint Peppermint

L-carvone

Spearmint Spearmint

D-carvone

Caraway Caraway