With so many variables affecting cooking time, it's clear that no formula or recipe can predict it infallibly. It's up to the cook to monitor the cooking and decide when it should stop.

Judging Doneness The best instruments for monitoring the doneness of meat remain the cook's eye and finger. Measuring internal temperature with a thermometer works well for roasts but not for smaller cuts. (Standard kitchen thermometers register temperature along an inch span of their thick metal shaft, not just at the tip. Dial thermometers also require frequent recalibration to maintain their accuracy.) The simplest way to be sure is to cut into the meat and check its color (the loss of fluid is local and minor). The best instruments for monitoring the doneness of meat remain the cook's eye and finger. Measuring internal temperature with a thermometer works well for roasts but not for smaller cuts. (Standard kitchen thermometers register temperature along an inch span of their thick metal shaft, not just at the tip. Dial thermometers also require frequent recalibration to maintain their accuracy.) The simplest way to be sure is to cut into the meat and check its color (the loss of fluid is local and minor).

The influence of cooking temperature on the evenness of cooking. Left: Left: In meat cooked through over high heat, the outer layer gets overcooked while the center reaches the desired temperature. In meat cooked through over high heat, the outer layer gets overcooked while the center reaches the desired temperature. Right: Right: In meat cooked through over low heat, the outer layers get less overcooked, and the meat is more evenly done. In meat cooked through over low heat, the outer layers get less overcooked, and the meat is more evenly done.

Most professional cooks still evaluate meats by their "feel" and by the way their juices flow: Bleu meat, cooked at the surface but just warmed within, remains relatively unchanged - soft to the touch, like the muscle between thumb and forefinger when it's completely relaxed, with little or no colored juice (some colorless fat may melt out). meat, cooked at the surface but just warmed within, remains relatively unchanged - soft to the touch, like the muscle between thumb and forefinger when it's completely relaxed, with little or no colored juice (some colorless fat may melt out).

Rare meat, some of whose protein has coagulated, is more resilient when poked with the finger - like the thumb-forefinger muscle when the two digits are stretched apart - and red juice begins to appear at the surface. To some people this is meat at its most succulent; to others it is still raw, "b.l.o.o.d.y" (though the juices are not blood), and potentially hazardous. meat, some of whose protein has coagulated, is more resilient when poked with the finger - like the thumb-forefinger muscle when the two digits are stretched apart - and red juice begins to appear at the surface. To some people this is meat at its most succulent; to others it is still raw, "b.l.o.o.d.y" (though the juices are not blood), and potentially hazardous.

Medium-done meat, whose connective-tissue collagen has shrunk, is more firm - like the thumb-forefinger muscle when the two digits are squeezed together - and squeezes droplets of red juice to steak and chop surfaces, while the interior pales to pink. Most but not all microbes are killed in this range.

Well-done meat, nearly all its proteins denatured, is frankly stiff to the touch, little juice is apparent, and both juice and interior are a dull tan or gray. Microbes are dead, and many meat lovers would say that the meat is too. However, prolonged, gentle cooking will loosen the connective-tissue harness and bring back a degree of tenderness. meat, nearly all its proteins denatured, is frankly stiff to the touch, little juice is apparent, and both juice and interior are a dull tan or gray. Microbes are dead, and many meat lovers would say that the meat is too. However, prolonged, gentle cooking will loosen the connective-tissue harness and bring back a degree of tenderness.

Meat Doneness and Safety As we've seen, meats inevitably harbor bacteria, and it takes temperatures of 160F/70C or higher to guarantee the rapid destruction of the bacteria that can cause human disease - temperatures at which meat is well-done and has lost much of its moisture. So is eating juicy, pink-red meat risky? Not if the cut is an intact piece of healthy muscle tissue, a steak or chop, and its surface has been thoroughly cooked: bacteria are on the meat surfaces, not inside. Ground meats are riskier, because the contaminated meat surface is broken into small fragments and spread throughout the ma.s.s. The interior of a raw hamburger usually does contain bacteria, and is safest if cooked well done. Raw meat dishes - steak tartare and carpaccio - should be prepared only at the last minute from cuts carefully trimmed of their surfaces.

Making a Safer Rare Hamburger One way to enjoy a less risky rare hamburger is to grind the meat yourself after a quick treatment that will kill surface bacteria. Bring a large pot of water to a rolling boil, immerse the pieces of meat in the water for 3060 seconds, then remove, drain and pat dry, and grind in a scrupulously clean meat grinder. The blanching kills surface bacteria while overcooking only the outer 12 millimeters, which grinding then disperses invisibly throughout the rest of the meat. One way to enjoy a less risky rare hamburger is to grind the meat yourself after a quick treatment that will kill surface bacteria. Bring a large pot of water to a rolling boil, immerse the pieces of meat in the water for 3060 seconds, then remove, drain and pat dry, and grind in a scrupulously clean meat grinder. The blanching kills surface bacteria while overcooking only the outer 12 millimeters, which grinding then disperses invisibly throughout the rest of the meat.

Now that we understand the basic nature of heat and how it moves into and through meat, let's survey the common methods of cooking meat and how to make the best of them.

Cooking Fresh Meat: The Methods Many traditional meat recipes were developed at a time when meats came from mature, fatty animals, and so were fairly tolerant of overcooking. Fat coats and lubricates meat fibers during cooking, and stimulates the flow of saliva and creates the sensation of juiciness no matter how dry the meat fibers themselves have become. Recipes for hours-long braising or stewing were developed for mature animals with substantially cross-linked collagen that took a long time to dissolve into gelatin. However, today's industrially produced meats come from relatively young animals with more soluble collagen and with far less fat; they cook quickly, and suffer more from overcooking. Grilled chops and steaks may be just right at the center but dry elsewhere; long-braised pot roasts and stews are often dry throughout.

The cook's margin of error in cooking meat is narrower than it used to be. So it's more useful than ever to understand how the various methods for cooking meat work, and how best to apply them to the meat of the 21st century.

Modifying Texture Before and After Cooking There are a number of traditional techniques that tenderize tough meat before cooking, so that the cooking itself, and the drying of the muscle fibers, can be minimized. The most straightforward of these is to damage the meat structure physically, to fragment the muscle fibers and connective-tissue sheets by pounding, cutting, or grinding. Pieces of veal pounded into sheets (escalopes, scallopini) are both tenderized and made so thin that they cook through in a moisture-sparing minute or two. Grinding the meat into small pieces creates an entirely different sort of texture: the gently gathered ground beef in a good hamburger has a delicate quality quite unlike even a tender steak.

A traditional and labor-intensive French method for modifying tough meat is larding, larding, the insertion of slivers of pork fat into the meat by means of hollow needles. In addition to augmenting the meat's fat content, larding also breaks some fibers and connective-tissue sheets. the insertion of slivers of pork fat into the meat by means of hollow needles. In addition to augmenting the meat's fat content, larding also breaks some fibers and connective-tissue sheets.

Marinades Marinades are acidic liquids, originally vinegar and now including such ingredients as wine, fruit juices, b.u.t.termilk, and yogurt, in which the cook immerses meat for hours to days before cooking. They have been used since Renaissance times, when their primary function was to slow spoilage and to provide flavor. Today, meats are marinated primarily to flavor them and to make them more moist and tender. Perhaps the most common marinated meat dish is a stew, for which the meat is immersed in a mixture of wine and herbs and then cooked in it. Marinades are acidic liquids, originally vinegar and now including such ingredients as wine, fruit juices, b.u.t.termilk, and yogurt, in which the cook immerses meat for hours to days before cooking. They have been used since Renaissance times, when their primary function was to slow spoilage and to provide flavor. Today, meats are marinated primarily to flavor them and to make them more moist and tender. Perhaps the most common marinated meat dish is a stew, for which the meat is immersed in a mixture of wine and herbs and then cooked in it.

The acid in marinades does weaken muscle tissue and increase its ability to retain moisture. But marinades penetrate slowly, and can give the meat surface an overly sour flavor while they do so. The penetration time can be reduced by cutting meat into thin pieces or by using a cooking syringe to inject the marinade into larger pieces.

Meat Tenderizers Meat tenderizers are protein-digesting enzymes extracted from a number of plants, including papaya, pineapple, fig, kiwi, and ginger. They are available either in the original fruit or leaf, or purified and powdered for the shaker, diluted in salt and sugar. (Despite lore to the contrary, wine corks do not contain active enzymes and don't tenderize octopus or other tough meats!) The enzymes act slowly at refrigerator or room temperature, and some five times faster between 140 and 160F/6070C, so nearly all the tenderizing action takes place during cooking. The problem with tenderizers is that they penetrate into meat even more slowly than acids, a few millimeters per day, so that the meat surface tends to acc.u.mulate too much and get overly mealy, while the interior remains unaffected. The distribution can be improved by injecting the tenderizer into the meat. Meat tenderizers are protein-digesting enzymes extracted from a number of plants, including papaya, pineapple, fig, kiwi, and ginger. They are available either in the original fruit or leaf, or purified and powdered for the shaker, diluted in salt and sugar. (Despite lore to the contrary, wine corks do not contain active enzymes and don't tenderize octopus or other tough meats!) The enzymes act slowly at refrigerator or room temperature, and some five times faster between 140 and 160F/6070C, so nearly all the tenderizing action takes place during cooking. The problem with tenderizers is that they penetrate into meat even more slowly than acids, a few millimeters per day, so that the meat surface tends to acc.u.mulate too much and get overly mealy, while the interior remains unaffected. The distribution can be improved by injecting the tenderizer into the meat.

Brining The tendency of modern meats to dry out led cooks to rediscover light brining, a traditional method in Scandinavia and elsewhere. The meats, typically poultry or pork, are immersed in a brine containing 3 to 6% salt by weight for anywhere from a few hours to two days (depending on thickness) before being cooked as usual. They come out noticeably juicier. The tendency of modern meats to dry out led cooks to rediscover light brining, a traditional method in Scandinavia and elsewhere. The meats, typically poultry or pork, are immersed in a brine containing 3 to 6% salt by weight for anywhere from a few hours to two days (depending on thickness) before being cooked as usual. They come out noticeably juicier.

Brining has two initial effects. First, salt disrupts the structure of the muscle filaments. A 3% salt solution (2 tablespoons per quart/30 gm per liter) dissolves parts of the protein structure that supports the contracting filaments, and a 5.5% solution (4 tablespoons per quart/60 gm per liter) partly dissolves the filaments themselves. Second, the interactions of salt and proteins result in a greater water-holding capacity in the muscle cells, which then absorb water from the brine. (The inward movement of salt and water and disruptions of the muscle filaments into the meat also increase its absorption of aromatic molecules from any herbs and spices in the brine.) The meat's weight increases by 10% or more. When cooked, the meat still loses around 20% of its weight in moisture, but this loss is counter-balanced by the brine absorbed, so the moisture loss is effectively cut in half. In addition, the dissolved protein filaments can't coagulate into normally dense aggregates, so the cooked meat seems more tender. Because the brine works its way in from the outside, it has its earliest and strongest effects on the meat region most likely to be overcooked, so even a brief, incomplete soaking can make a difference.

The obvious disadvantage of brining is that it makes both the meat and its drippings quite salty. Some recipes balance the saltiness by including sugar or such ingredients as fruit juice or b.u.t.termilk, which provide both sweetness and sourness.

Shredding Even if a tough roast has been cooked to the point that it has become tender but unpleasantly dry, the cook can restore a certain succulence to the meat by pulling it apart into small shreds and pouring over them the meat's collected juices, or a sauce. A film of liquid clings to the surface of each shred and thus coats many fibers with some of their lost moisture. The finer the shredding, the greater the surface that can take up liquid, and the moister the meat will seem. When "pulled" meat and sauce are very hot, the sauce is more fluid and tends to run off the shreds; when cooler, the sauce becomes thicker and clings more tenaciously to the meat. Even if a tough roast has been cooked to the point that it has become tender but unpleasantly dry, the cook can restore a certain succulence to the meat by pulling it apart into small shreds and pouring over them the meat's collected juices, or a sauce. A film of liquid clings to the surface of each shred and thus coats many fibers with some of their lost moisture. The finer the shredding, the greater the surface that can take up liquid, and the moister the meat will seem. When "pulled" meat and sauce are very hot, the sauce is more fluid and tends to run off the shreds; when cooler, the sauce becomes thicker and clings more tenaciously to the meat.

Flames, Glowing Coals, and Coils Fire and red-hot coals were probably the first heat sources used to cook meat, and thanks to temperatures high enough to generate browning-reaction aromas, they can produce the most flavorful results. But this "primitive" method takes some care to get a juicy interior underneath the delicious crust.

Aids to Successful Grilling and Frying: Warm Meat and Frequent FlipsBecause grilling and frying involve high heat, they tend to overcook the outer portions of meat while the interior cooks through. This overcooking can be minimized in two ways: prewarming the meat, and flipping it frequently.

The warmer the meat starts out, the less time it takes to cook through, and so the less time the outer layers are exposed to high heat. The cooking and overcooking time can be reduced by a third or more by wrapping steaks and chops, immersing them for 3060 minutes in warm water, so that they approach body temperature, 100F/40C, and then cooking immediately (bacteria grow quickly on warm meat).

How often should the cook turn a steak or hamburger when grilling or frying? If perfect grill marks are necessary, once or twice. If texture and moistness are more important, then flip every minute. Frequent turns mean that neither side has the time either to absorb or to release large amounts of heat. The meat cooks faster, and its outer layers end up less overdone.

Grilling and Broiling The term "grilling" is generally used to mean cooking meat on a metal grate directly over the heat source, while "broiling" means cooking meat in a pan below the heat source. The heat source may be glowing coals, an open gas flame, or ceramic blocks heated by a gas flame, or a glowing electrical element. The primary means of heat transfer is infrared radiation, the direct emission of energy in the form of light: hence the glow of coals, flames, and heating elements (p. 781). The meat surface is only a few inches away from the heat, which is very hot indeed: gas burns at around 3,000F/1,650C, coals and electrical elements glow at 2,000F/1,100C. Because these temperatures can blacken food surfaces before the inside is cooked through, grilling is limited to such relatively thin and tender cuts as chops, steaks, poultry parts, and fish. The term "grilling" is generally used to mean cooking meat on a metal grate directly over the heat source, while "broiling" means cooking meat in a pan below the heat source. The heat source may be glowing coals, an open gas flame, or ceramic blocks heated by a gas flame, or a glowing electrical element. The primary means of heat transfer is infrared radiation, the direct emission of energy in the form of light: hence the glow of coals, flames, and heating elements (p. 781). The meat surface is only a few inches away from the heat, which is very hot indeed: gas burns at around 3,000F/1,650C, coals and electrical elements glow at 2,000F/1,100C. Because these temperatures can blacken food surfaces before the inside is cooked through, grilling is limited to such relatively thin and tender cuts as chops, steaks, poultry parts, and fish.

The most flexible grill arrangement is a dense bed of glowing coals or high gas flame under one area for surface browning, spa.r.s.er coals or a lower gas flame under another for cooking through, and the distance between meat and fire an inch or two. The meat is cooked over high heat to brown each side well but as briefly as possible, in two or three minutes, and then moved to the cooler area to heat through gently and evenly.

Spit-Roasting Spit-roasting - impaling meat on a metal or wood spike and turning it continuously near the radiating heat source - is best suited to large, bulky cuts, including roasts and whole animals. It exposes the meat surface to browning temperatures, but it does so both evenly and intermittently. Each area receives an intense, browning blast of infrared radiation, but only for a few seconds. During the many seconds when it faces away from the heat, the hot surface gives up much of its heat to the air, so only a fraction of each blast penetrates into the meat, and the interior therefore cooks through relatively gently. In addition, the constant rotation causes the juices to cling to and travel around the meat surface, basting and coating it with proteins and sugars for the browning reactions. Spit-roasting - impaling meat on a metal or wood spike and turning it continuously near the radiating heat source - is best suited to large, bulky cuts, including roasts and whole animals. It exposes the meat surface to browning temperatures, but it does so both evenly and intermittently. Each area receives an intense, browning blast of infrared radiation, but only for a few seconds. During the many seconds when it faces away from the heat, the hot surface gives up much of its heat to the air, so only a fraction of each blast penetrates into the meat, and the interior therefore cooks through relatively gently. In addition, the constant rotation causes the juices to cling to and travel around the meat surface, basting and coating it with proteins and sugars for the browning reactions.

The full advantages of spit roasting are obtained when the roasting is done in the open air, or in an oven with the door ajar. A closed oven quickly heats up to baking temperatures, and the meat will accordingly heat through less gently.

Barbecuing This distinctively American cooking method took its modern form about a century ago. Barbecuing is the low-temperature, slow heating of meat in a closed chamber by means of hot air from smoldering wood coals. It's an outdoor cousin to the slow oven roast, and produces smoky, fall-apart tender meat. This distinctively American cooking method took its modern form about a century ago. Barbecuing is the low-temperature, slow heating of meat in a closed chamber by means of hot air from smoldering wood coals. It's an outdoor cousin to the slow oven roast, and produces smoky, fall-apart tender meat.

Modern barbecuing devices allow the cook to control the amount of heat and smoke produced, and facilitate periodic basting with a wide range of sauces, most of them spicy and vinegary, to intensify flavor, moisten the meat surface, and further slow the cooking. In the best devices, the wood is burned in one chamber and the meat cooked in a second connected chamber, so that there's no direct radiation from the coals, and only the relatively cool smoke (around 200F/90C) transfers heat, inefficiently and therefore gently. It takes several hours to bring large cuts of meat - slabs of ribs, pork shoulders and legs, beef briskets - to an internal temperature of 16570F/75C, and a whole hog will take 18 hours or more. These are ideal conditions for the tenderizing of tough, inexpensive cuts.

Food Words: Barbecue BarbecueThe term barbecue barbecue comes via the Spanish comes via the Spanish barbacoa barbacoa from the West Indies, and a Taino word that meant a framework of green sticks suspended on corner posts, on which meat, fish, and other foods were laid and cooked in the open over fire and coals. Both the height and the fire were adjustable, so food could either be quickly grilled or slowly smoked and dried. In American colonial times the from the West Indies, and a Taino word that meant a framework of green sticks suspended on corner posts, on which meat, fish, and other foods were laid and cooked in the open over fire and coals. Both the height and the fire were adjustable, so food could either be quickly grilled or slowly smoked and dried. In American colonial times the barbecue barbecue was a popular and festive bout of ma.s.s outdoor meat cooking. By the beginning of the 20th century it had evolved into the familiar slow cooking of highly flavored meat. was a popular and festive bout of ma.s.s outdoor meat cooking. By the beginning of the 20th century it had evolved into the familiar slow cooking of highly flavored meat.

Many barbecued meats end up with a "smoke ring," a permanent pink or red zone under the surface (p. 149).

Hot Air and Walls: Oven "Roasting"

In contrast to the grill, the oven is an indirect and more uniform means of cooking. The primary heat source, whether flame, coil, or coal, heats the oven, and the oven then heats the food from all sides, by means of convection currents of hot air and infrared radiation from the oven walls (p. 784). Oven heating is a relatively slow method, well suited to large cuts of meat that take time to heat through. Its efficiency is especially influenced by the cooking temperature, which can be anything from 200 up to 500F/95260C and above. Cooking times range from 60 to 10 (or fewer) minutes per pound/500 gm.

Low Oven Temperatures At low oven temperatures, below 250F/125C, the moist meat surface dries very slowly. As moisture evaporates, it actually cools the surface, so despite the oven temperature, the surface temperature of the meat may be as low as 160F/70C. This means relatively little surface browning and long cooking times, but also very gentle heating of the interior, minimal moisture loss, a relatively uniform doneness within the meat, and a large window of time in which the meat is properly done. In addition, a slow inner temperature rise to 140F/60C - over the course of several hours in a large roast - allows the meat's own protein-breaking enzymes to do some tenderizing (p. 144). Ovens equipped with fans to force the hot air over the meat ("forced convection") improve surface browning at low roasting temperatures. Low-temperature roasting is suited to both tender cuts, whose moistness it preserves, and tough cuts that benefit from long cooking to dissolve collagen into gelatin. At low oven temperatures, below 250F/125C, the moist meat surface dries very slowly. As moisture evaporates, it actually cools the surface, so despite the oven temperature, the surface temperature of the meat may be as low as 160F/70C. This means relatively little surface browning and long cooking times, but also very gentle heating of the interior, minimal moisture loss, a relatively uniform doneness within the meat, and a large window of time in which the meat is properly done. In addition, a slow inner temperature rise to 140F/60C - over the course of several hours in a large roast - allows the meat's own protein-breaking enzymes to do some tenderizing (p. 144). Ovens equipped with fans to force the hot air over the meat ("forced convection") improve surface browning at low roasting temperatures. Low-temperature roasting is suited to both tender cuts, whose moistness it preserves, and tough cuts that benefit from long cooking to dissolve collagen into gelatin.

High Oven Temperatures At high oven temperatures, 400F/200C and above, the meat surface quickly browns and develops the characteristic roasted flavor, and cooking times are short. On the other hand, the meat loses a lot of moisture, its outer portions end up much hotter than the center, and the center can go from done to overdone in just a few minutes. At high oven temperatures, 400F/200C and above, the meat surface quickly browns and develops the characteristic roasted flavor, and cooking times are short. On the other hand, the meat loses a lot of moisture, its outer portions end up much hotter than the center, and the center can go from done to overdone in just a few minutes.

High-temperature roasting is ideal for tender and relatively small cuts of meat that cook through quickly, and whose surface wouldn't have time to brown without the exposure to high heat.

Moderate Oven Temperatures Moderate temperatures, around 350F/175C, offer a compromise that produces acceptable results with many cuts of meat. So does a two-stage cooking: for example, starting the oven at a high temperature for an initial browning (or browning the meat on the stovetop in a hot pan), and then turning the thermostat down to cook the meat through more gently. Moderate temperatures, around 350F/175C, offer a compromise that produces acceptable results with many cuts of meat. So does a two-stage cooking: for example, starting the oven at a high temperature for an initial browning (or browning the meat on the stovetop in a hot pan), and then turning the thermostat down to cook the meat through more gently.

The Effects of Shielding and Basting At moderate and hot oven temperatures, the oven walls, ceiling, and floor radiate heat energy in significant amounts. This means that if an object lies between the food and one of the oven surfaces, the food will receive less heat from that direction and will cook more slowly. This shielding effect can be both a nuisance and a useful tool. The pan underneath a roast slows the heating of the roast bottom, and the cook should turn the roast periodically to make sure that top and bottom receive equal amounts of heat. But a sheet of aluminum foil deliberately placed over the meat will deflect a substantial portion of heat energy and thus slow the cooking of the whole roast. So will basting with a water-containing liquid, which cools the meat surface as it evaporates. At moderate and hot oven temperatures, the oven walls, ceiling, and floor radiate heat energy in significant amounts. This means that if an object lies between the food and one of the oven surfaces, the food will receive less heat from that direction and will cook more slowly. This shielding effect can be both a nuisance and a useful tool. The pan underneath a roast slows the heating of the roast bottom, and the cook should turn the roast periodically to make sure that top and bottom receive equal amounts of heat. But a sheet of aluminum foil deliberately placed over the meat will deflect a substantial portion of heat energy and thus slow the cooking of the whole roast. So will basting with a water-containing liquid, which cools the meat surface as it evaporates.

The Challenge of Whole Birds Chickens, turkeys, and other meat birds are difficult to roast whole, because their two kinds of meat are best cooked differently. The tender breast meat gets dry and tough if heated much above 155F/68C. The leg meat is full of connective tissue, and is chewy if cooked to less than 165F/73C. So usually the cook must choose: either the leg meat is sufficiently cooked and the breast meat dry, or the breast meat succulent and the leg meat gristly. Chickens, turkeys, and other meat birds are difficult to roast whole, because their two kinds of meat are best cooked differently. The tender breast meat gets dry and tough if heated much above 155F/68C. The leg meat is full of connective tissue, and is chewy if cooked to less than 165F/73C. So usually the cook must choose: either the leg meat is sufficiently cooked and the breast meat dry, or the breast meat succulent and the leg meat gristly.

Cooks try to overcome this dilemma in many ways. They turn the bird in various routines to expose the thigh joint to more heat. They cover the breast with foil, or with wet cheesecloth, or strips of pork fat ("barding"), or baste it, all to slow its cooking. They cover the breast with an ice pack and let the bird sit at room temperature for an hour, so that the legs start the cooking warmer than the breast. They brine the bird to juice up its breast. Perfectionists cut the bird up and roast legs and b.r.e.a.s.t.s separately.

Hot Metal: Frying, or Sauteing Simple frying, or sauteing, cooks by the direct conduction of heat energy from hot metal pan to meat, usually via a thin layer of oil that prevents the meat from sticking and conducts heat evenly across minute gaps between meat and pan. Metals are the best heat conductors known, and frying therefore cooks the meat surface rapidly. Its distinctive characteristic is the ability to brown and flavor the meat surface in a matter of seconds. This searing action requires a combination of heat source and pan that can maintain a high temperature even while the leaking meat juices are being vaporized. If the pan gets cool enough to let moisture acc.u.mulate - for example because it was insufficiently preheated, or overloaded with cold wet meat - then the meat stews in its own juices until they boil off, and its surface doesn't brown well. (The same thing will happen if the pan is covered, so that the water vapor is trapped and falls back into the pan.) The appetizing sizzle of frying meat is actually the sound of moisture from the meat being vaporized as it hits the hot metal pan, and cooks use this sound to judge the pan temperature. A continuous strong hiss indicates the immediate conversion of moisture to steam by a hot pan, and efficient surface browning; weak and irregular sputtering indicates that the moisture is collecting in distinct droplets, and the pan is barely hot enough to boil it off.

Predicting Roasting TimesA number of different guidelines have been proposed for predicting how much time it should take to roast a given piece of meat. Minutes per inch thickness and minutes per pound are the usual approximations. However, the mathematics of heat transfer show that cooking times are actually proportional to the thickness squared, squared, or to the weight or to the weight to the to the 2 2/3 power. power. And the cooking time also depends on many other factors. There is no simple and accurate equation that can tell us how long to cook a particular piece of meat in our particular kitchen. The best we can do is monitor the actual cooking, and antic.i.p.ate when we should stop by following the temperature rise at the center of the meat. And the cooking time also depends on many other factors. There is no simple and accurate equation that can tell us how long to cook a particular piece of meat in our particular kitchen. The best we can do is monitor the actual cooking, and antic.i.p.ate when we should stop by following the temperature rise at the center of the meat.

Because frying is a rapid cooking method, it's applied mainly to the same thin, tender cuts best suited for grilling and broiling. As with grilling, frying will be both faster and gentler if the meat starts at room temperature or above and is turned frequently (see box, p. 156). Cooks make frying even more efficient by pressing down on the meat - with the spatula or a heavy pan or brick - to improve the thermal contact between meat and pan. For thicker cuts whose insides take time to heat through, the cook slows heat transfer after the initial browning to prevent the outer portions from being overcooked. This can be done simply by lowering the burner heat, or by shifting the pan to the oven, which continues the heating from all sides and frees the cook from the necessity of turning the meat. Restaurant cooks often "finish" fried meats by putting the pan in the oven as soon as the first side has been browned and the meat turned.

Hot Oil: Shallow and Deep Frying Fats and oils are a useful cooking medium because they can be heated to temperatures well above the boiling point of water, and can therefore dry, crisp, and brown the food surface. In shallow-fat frying, pieces of meat are cooked in enough melted fat or oil to bathe the bottom and sides of the meat; in deep-fat frying, there's enough oil to immerse the meat completely. Heat is transferred from the pan to the meat by way of convection currents in the fat or oil. These materials are less efficient than both metal and water at transferring heat, and yet more than twice as efficient as an oven. This thermal moderation, together with the ability to contact the meat evenly and intimately, makes fat frying an especially versatile technique. It's used primarily for poultry and fish, everything from thin fillets and chicken b.r.e.a.s.t.s to whole 15 lb/7 kg turkeys, which take something over an hour to cook (compared to two or three hours in the oven). The usual cooking temperature ranges between 300 and 350F/150 and 175C. The oil starts out near 350, cools when the meat is introduced and its moisture begins to boil and bubble away, then heats up again as moisture flow slows and the burner heat catches up. The temperature is high enough to dehydrate, brown, and crisp the surface, while the gradual movement of heat into the meat gives the cook a reasonable window of time in which to stop the cooking while the meat is still moist.

The Keys to Crisp SkinOne of the special pleasures of a well-cooked bird is its crisp, rich skin. The skin of birds and other animals is mainly water (about 50%), fat (40%), and connective-tissue collagen (3%). In order to crisp the skin, the cook must dissolve the leathery collagen into tender gelatin in the skin's water, and then vaporize the water out of the skin. The high heat of a hot oven or frying pan does this most effectively; slow cooking at a low oven temperature can desiccate the skin while its collagen is intact, and preserve its leatheriness. A crisp skin is easier to obtain with a dry-processed bird - kosher or halal, for example - whose skin hasn't been plumped with added water (p. 143). It also helps to let the bird air-dry uncovered in the refrigerator for a day or two, and to oil the skin before roasting. (Oiling improves heat transfer from hot oven air to moist meat.) The cooked bird should be served promptly, since crisp skin quickly reabsorbs moisture from the hot meat beneath, and becomes flabby as it sits on the plate.

For some purposes, meats may be partly precooked at a relatively low oil temperature, and then cooked through and browned at a higher temperature just before serving. Fast-food fried chicken is prepared in special pressure cookers (p. 785), which fry at the usual oil temperatures, but raise the boiling point of water, so that less of the moisture in the meat vaporizes during the cooking. The result is more rapid cooking (less cooling by evaporation) and moister meat.

The Searing QuestionThe best-known explanation of a cooking method is probably this catchy phrase: "Sear the meat to seal in the juices." The eminent German chemist Justus von Liebig came up with this idea around 1850. It was disproved a few decades later. Yet this myth lives on, even among professional cooks.Before Liebig, most cooks in Europe cooked roasts through at some distance from the fire, or protected by a layer of greased paper, and then browned them quickly at the end. Juice retention was not a concern. But Liebig thought that the water-soluble components of meat were nutritionally important, so it was worth minimizing their loss. In his book Researches on the Chemistry of Food, Researches on the Chemistry of Food, he said that this could be done by heating the meat quickly enough that the juices are immediately sealed inside. He explained what happens when a piece of meat is plunged into boiling water, and then the temperature reduced to a simmer: he said that this could be done by heating the meat quickly enough that the juices are immediately sealed inside. He explained what happens when a piece of meat is plunged into boiling water, and then the temperature reduced to a simmer:When it is introduced into the boiling water, the alb.u.men immediately coagulates from the surface inwards, and in this state forms a crust or sh.e.l.l, which no longer permits the external water to penetrate into the interior of the ma.s.s of flesh.... The flesh retains its juiciness, and is quite as agreeable to the taste as it can be made by roasting; for the chief part of the sapid [flavorful] const.i.tuents of the ma.s.s is retained, under these circ.u.mstances, in the flesh.And if the crust can keep water out during boiling, it can keep the juices in during roasting, so it's best to sear the roast immediately, and then continue at a lower temperature to finish the insides.Liebig's ideas caught on very quickly among cooks and cookbook writers, including the eminent French chef Auguste Escoffier. But simple experiments in the 1930s showed that Liebig was wrong. The crust that forms around the surface of the meat is not waterproof, as any cook has experienced: the continuing sizzle of meat in the pan or oven or on the grill is the sound of moisture continually escaping and vaporizing. In fact, moisture loss is proportional to meat temperature, so the high heat of searing actually dries out the meat surface more than moderate heat does. But searing does flavor the meat surface with products of the browning reactions (p. 777), and flavor gets our juices flowing. Liebig and his followers were wrong about meat juices, but they were right that searing makes delicious meat.

Breadings and Batters Nearly all meats that are shallow- or deep-fried are coated with a layer of dry breading or flour-based batter before they're cooked. These coatings do not "seal in" moisture. Instead, they provide a thin but critical layer of insulation that buffers the meat surface from direct contact with the oil. The coating, not the meat, quickly dries out into a pleasingly crisp surface, and forms a poorly conducting matrix of dry starch with pockets of steam or immobilized oil. Because rare meat that still exudes juice would quickly make the crisp crust soggy, oil-fried meats are generally cooked until bubbling in the oil ceases, a sign that their juices have ceased to flow. Nearly all meats that are shallow- or deep-fried are coated with a layer of dry breading or flour-based batter before they're cooked. These coatings do not "seal in" moisture. Instead, they provide a thin but critical layer of insulation that buffers the meat surface from direct contact with the oil. The coating, not the meat, quickly dries out into a pleasingly crisp surface, and forms a poorly conducting matrix of dry starch with pockets of steam or immobilized oil. Because rare meat that still exudes juice would quickly make the crisp crust soggy, oil-fried meats are generally cooked until bubbling in the oil ceases, a sign that their juices have ceased to flow.

Hot Water: Braising, Stewing, Poaching, Simmering As a medium for cooking meat, water has several advantages. It transmits heat rapidly and evenly; its own temperature is easily adjusted to the cook's needs, and it can carry and impart flavor and become a sauce. Unlike oil, it can't get hot enough to generate browning flavors at the meat surface; but meats can be prebrowned and then finished in water-based liquids.

There are several names for the simple and versatile method of heating meat in these liquids, which may be meat or vegetable stock, milk, wine or beer, pureed fruits or vegetables. The many variations involve differences in the cooking liquid used, the size of the meat pieces, the relative proportions of meat and liquid, and initial precooking. (Braises and pot roasts involve larger cuts and less liquid than do stews.) In all of them, however, the key variable is temperature, which should be kept well below the boil, around 180F/80C, so that the outer portions don't overcook badly. Many slow braises and stews are cooked in a low oven, but the usual temperatures specified - 325350F/165175C - are high enough that they'll eventually raise the contents of a covered pot to the boil. Unless the pot is left uncovered, which allows cooling evaporation (and concentrates and creates flavor at the liquid surface), the oven temperature should be kept below 200F. (The original braisier braisier in France was a closed pot sitting on and topped with a few live coals.) in France was a closed pot sitting on and topped with a few live coals.) Meats cooked in liquid should be allowed to cool in that liquid, and are best served at temperatures well below the cooking temperature, around 120F/50C. The capacity of the meat tissue to hold water increases as it cools, so it will actually reabsorb some of the liquid it lost during the cooking.

Tender Meats: Surprisingly Quick Cooking Hot water is such an effective heat transmitter that it cooks flat tender cuts of meat very quickly. Chops, chicken b.r.e.a.s.t.s, fish steaks and filets will all be done in just a few minutes. If they're browned first in a frying pan to develop flavor, they may need only a minute or two to finish cooking through. For the most consistent results with tender meats, bring the braising liquid to the boil, add the meat to destroy surface bacteria, and after a few seconds add some cold liquid to cool the pan to 180F/80C, so that the outer portions of the meat won't overheat and there is a broader window of time during which the center is properly done. If the liquid needs to be boiled down to concentrate flavor or to create a thicker consistency for a sauce, remove the meat first. Hot water is such an effective heat transmitter that it cooks flat tender cuts of meat very quickly. Chops, chicken b.r.e.a.s.t.s, fish steaks and filets will all be done in just a few minutes. If they're browned first in a frying pan to develop flavor, they may need only a minute or two to finish cooking through. For the most consistent results with tender meats, bring the braising liquid to the boil, add the meat to destroy surface bacteria, and after a few seconds add some cold liquid to cool the pan to 180F/80C, so that the outer portions of the meat won't overheat and there is a broader window of time during which the center is properly done. If the liquid needs to be boiled down to concentrate flavor or to create a thicker consistency for a sauce, remove the meat first.

Food Words: Poach, Simmer, Braise, Stew Poach, Simmer, Braise, StewThese various terms for the same basic process have wildly different origins. Poach Poach is a medieval word from the French for the "pouch" of gently cooked egg white that forms around the yolk. The original 16th-century form of is a medieval word from the French for the "pouch" of gently cooked egg white that forms around the yolk. The original 16th-century form of simmer simmer was was simper, simper, an affected, conceited facial expression, the connection possibly being the coy blinking of the bubbles as they begin to break at the surface. an affected, conceited facial expression, the connection possibly being the coy blinking of the bubbles as they begin to break at the surface. Braise Braise and and stew stew are both 18th-century borrowings from the French, the first coming from a word for "coal," and referring to the practice of putting coals under and atop the cooking pot, the second from are both 18th-century borrowings from the French, the first coming from a word for "coal," and referring to the practice of putting coals under and atop the cooking pot, the second from etuve, etuve, meaning stove or heated room and so a hot enclosure. meaning stove or heated room and so a hot enclosure.

Tough and Large Cuts: Slower Means Moister Meats with a significant amount of tough connective tissue must be cooked to a minimum of 160180F/7080C to dissolve their collagen into gelatin, but that temperature range is well above the 140150F/6065C at which the muscle fibers lose their juices. So it's a challenge to make tough meats succulent. The key is to cook slowly, at or just above the collagen-dissolving minimum, to minimize the drying-out of the fibers. The meat should be checked regularly and taken off the heat as soon as its fibers are easily pushed apart ("fork tender"). The connective tissue itself can help, because once dissolved, its gelatin holds onto some of the juice squeezed from the muscle fibers and thus imparts a kind of succulence to the meat. The shanks, shoulders, and cheeks of young animals are rich in collagen and so make fairly forgiving, gelatin-thickened braises. Meats with a significant amount of tough connective tissue must be cooked to a minimum of 160180F/7080C to dissolve their collagen into gelatin, but that temperature range is well above the 140150F/6065C at which the muscle fibers lose their juices. So it's a challenge to make tough meats succulent. The key is to cook slowly, at or just above the collagen-dissolving minimum, to minimize the drying-out of the fibers. The meat should be checked regularly and taken off the heat as soon as its fibers are easily pushed apart ("fork tender"). The connective tissue itself can help, because once dissolved, its gelatin holds onto some of the juice squeezed from the muscle fibers and thus imparts a kind of succulence to the meat. The shanks, shoulders, and cheeks of young animals are rich in collagen and so make fairly forgiving, gelatin-thickened braises.

One useful ingredient in long-cooked braises and stews can be a prolonged time - an hour or two - during which the cook carefully manages the meat's temperature rise up to the simmer. The time that the meat spends below 120F/50C amounts to a period of accelerated aging that weakens the connective tissue and reduces the time needed at fiber-drying temperatures. One sign that braised or stewed meat has been heated very gently and gradually is a distinct red color throughout the meat, even though it's well done: the same slow heating that allows meat enzymes to tenderize and flavor the meat also allows more of the myoglobin pigment to remain intact (p. 149).

Guidelines for Succulent Braises and StewsA moist, tender braise or stew results from the cook's c.u.mulative attention to several details of procedure. The most important rule: never let the meat interior get anywhere near the boil.

Keep the meat as intact as possible to minimize cut surfaces through which fluids can escape.

If the meat must be cut, cut it into relatively large pieces, at least an inch/2.5 cm on a side.

Brown the meat very quickly in a hot pan so that the inside of the meat warms only slightly. This kills microbes on the meat surfaces, and creates flavor.

Start the pot with meat and cooking liquid in a cold oven, the pot lid ajar to allow some evaporation, and set the thermostat to 200F/93C, so that it heats the stew to around 120F/50C slowly, over two hours.

Raise the oven temperature to 250F/120C so that the stew slowly warms from 120F to 180F/80C.

After an hour, check the meat every half hour, and stop the cooking when it is easily penetrated by the tines of a fork. Let the meat cool in the stew, where it will reabsorb some liquid.

The liquid will probably need to be reduced by boiling to improve flavor and consistency. Remove the meat first.

Water Vapor: Steaming Steaming is by far the fastest method for pouring heat into food, thanks to the large amount of energy that water vapor releases when it condenses into droplets on the food surface. However, it works rapidly only as long as the meat surface is cooler than the boiling point. Because heat moves through meat more slowly than steam deposits it on the surface, heat acc.u.mulates at the surface, which soon reaches the boiling point, and the heat transfer rate falls to a level just sufficient to keep the surface at the boil. Though it heats meat by means of moisture, steaming does not guarantee moist meat. Muscle fibers heated to the boiling point shrink and squeeze out much of their moisture, and the steamy atmosphere can't replace it.

Because steaming brings the meat surface to the boil so quickly, it's a method best suited to thin, tender cuts of meat that will cook through quickly in just a few minutes, before their outer portions become badly overcooked and dried out. Meats are often wrapped - in an edible lettuce or cabbage leaf, an inedible but flavorsome banana leaf or corn husk, or in parchment or foil - to protect the surface from the harsh steam heat and cook it more gradually. The meat must be arranged on an open rack in a single layer or else in separate tiers; any surface not exposed directly to the atmosphere inside the pot will cook much more slowly than the rest. The pot should contain enough water that it won't cook dry as steam escapes around the lid. Herbs and spices are often included in the water to aromatize the meat.

Low-Temperature Steam When steaming, the cook usually takes care to keep the lid tight on the pot and the heat high, to make sure that the pot atmosphere is saturated with vapor. However steaming can also be done at reduced temperatures and therefore more gently. Water at a 180F/80C simmer in a covered pot will keep the pot atmosphere around 180 as well, and leave the outer portions of the meat less overdone. In China, some dishes are steamed in open pots, where the water vapor mixes with ambient air and the temperature is well below the boil. Commercial convection steamers can produce saturated vapor all the way from body temperature to the boil. They make it possible for restaurant cooks to prepare moist meats and fish with very little attention and keep them at serving temperature until needed. When steaming, the cook usually takes care to keep the lid tight on the pot and the heat high, to make sure that the pot atmosphere is saturated with vapor. However steaming can also be done at reduced temperatures and therefore more gently. Water at a 180F/80C simmer in a covered pot will keep the pot atmosphere around 180 as well, and leave the outer portions of the meat less overdone. In China, some dishes are steamed in open pots, where the water vapor mixes with ambient air and the temperature is well below the boil. Commercial convection steamers can produce saturated vapor all the way from body temperature to the boil. They make it possible for restaurant cooks to prepare moist meats and fish with very little attention and keep them at serving temperature until needed.

High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Cooking While conventional cooking is limited to an effective maximum temperature of the boiling point of water (p. 784), the pressure cooker allows us to raise that maximum from 212 to 250F/100 to 120C. It does so by tightly sealing the meat and cooking liquid in the pan and allowing the vaporizing water to build up the pressure to about double the normal air pressure at sea level. This increased pressure increases the boiling point, and high pressure and temperature put together produce an overall doubling or tripling of the heat transfer rate into the meat, as well as an extremely efficient conversion of collagen into gelatin. Pot roasts cook in less than an hour instead of two or three. Of course the proteins get very hot and therefore squeeze out much of their moisture; meat must be well endowed with fat and collagen to end up anything but dry. While conventional cooking is limited to an effective maximum temperature of the boiling point of water (p. 784), the pressure cooker allows us to raise that maximum from 212 to 250F/100 to 120C. It does so by tightly sealing the meat and cooking liquid in the pan and allowing the vaporizing water to build up the pressure to about double the normal air pressure at sea level. This increased pressure increases the boiling point, and high pressure and temperature put together produce an overall doubling or tripling of the heat transfer rate into the meat, as well as an extremely efficient conversion of collagen into gelatin. Pot roasts cook in less than an hour instead of two or three. Of course the proteins get very hot and therefore squeeze out much of their moisture; meat must be well endowed with fat and collagen to end up anything but dry.

At the other end of the pressure scale is cooking at high alt.i.tude, where the atmospheric pressure is significantly lower than it is at sea level. The boiling point of water is also lower (203F/95C at mile-high Denver, 194F/90C at 10,000 feet/3,000 meters), and meat cooking more gentle - and more time-consuming.

Microwave Cooking Microwave cooking is neither dry nor a moist technique, but electromagnetic (p. 786). High-frequency radio waves generated in the oven cause electrically asymmetrical water molecules to vibrate, and these molecules in turn heat up the rest of the tissue. Because radio waves penetrate organic matter, the meat is cooked directly to a depth of an inch or so. Microwave cooking is thus very fast, but it also tends to result in greater fluid loss than conventional means. Generally, large cuts of meats "roasted" in the microwave oven get badly overcooked in the outer inch while the interior cooks through; they end up dryer and tougher than standard roasts. Since the air in the oven is not heated, microwave ovens can't brown meat surfaces unless they're a.s.sisted by special packaging or a broiling element. (An exception to this rule is cured meats like bacon, which get so dry when cooked that they can brown.) More reliable results can be obtained in the microwave oven when the meat is immersed in some liquid, cooked in a loosely covered container, and checked carefully for signs of proper doneness. There's some evidence that microwaves are unusually effective at dissolving collagen into gelatin.

After the Cooking: Resting, Carving, and Serving A meat dish can be cooked perfectly and yet disappoint if it's mishandled on the way to the table. Large oven roasts should be allowed to rest on the countertop for at least a half hour before carving, not only to allow the "afterheat" to finish cooking the center (p. 153), but also to allow the meat to cool down, ideally to 120F/50C or so. (This may take well over an hour; some chefs allow for a rest period equal to the roasting time.) As the temperature drops, the meat structure becomes firmer and more resistant to deformation, and its water-holding capacity increases. Cooling therefore makes the meat easier to carve and reduces the amount of fluid lost during carving.

Whenever possible, meat is carved across the grain of the muscle fibers to reduce the impression of fibrousness in the mouth and make the meat easier to chew. Carving knives should be kept sharp. Sawing away with a dull blade compresses the tissue and squeezes its delicious liquid away.

Finally, remember that the saturated fats of beef, lamb, and pork are solid at room temperature, which means that they rapidly congeal on the plate. Also, gelatinized collagen begins to set around body temperature and makes the meat seem noticeably stiffer. Preheated platters and plates prolong the table appeal of any hot meat dish.

Leftovers Warmed-Over Flavor At the same time that cooking develops the characteristic flavors of meat, it also promotes chemical changes that lead to characteristic, stale, cardboard-like "warmed-over flavors" when the meat is stored and reheated. (Complex or strongly flavored dishes may actually improve with time and reheating; warmed-over flavor develops within the meat itself.) The princ.i.p.al source of off-flavors is unsaturated fatty acids, which are damaged by oxygen and iron from myoglobin. This damage occurs slowly in the refrigerator and more rapidly during reheating. Meats with a greater proportion of unsaturated fat in their fat tissue - poultry and pork - are more susceptible to warmed-over flavor than beef and lamb. Cured meats suffer less because their nitrite acts as an antioxidant. At the same time that cooking develops the characteristic flavors of meat, it also promotes chemical changes that lead to characteristic, stale, cardboard-like "warmed-over flavors" when the meat is stored and reheated. (Complex or strongly flavored dishes may actually improve with time and reheating; warmed-over flavor develops within the meat itself.) The princ.i.p.al source of off-flavors is unsaturated fatty acids, which are damaged by oxygen and iron from myoglobin. This damage occurs slowly in the refrigerator and more rapidly during reheating. Meats with a greater proportion of unsaturated fat in their fat tissue - poultry and pork - are more susceptible to warmed-over flavor than beef and lamb. Cured meats suffer less because their nitrite acts as an antioxidant.

There are several ways to minimize the development of off-flavors in leftovers. Season the food with herbs and spices that contain antioxidant compounds (chapter 8). Use low-permeability plastic wraps to cover the meat (saran or polyvinyl chloride; polyethylene is surprisingly permeable to oxygen), and eliminate air pockets in the package. Eat the leftovers as soon as possible, and with the minimum degree of reheating consistent with safety. Leftover roast chicken, for example, tastes fresher when served cold.

Maintaining Moistness If you've taken the trouble to cook a meat dish gently, then apply the same care to reheating: it only takes moments at the boil to dry out a good stew. Bring the liquid alone to the boil, return the meat to it so that its surfaces are exposed to the boil very briefly, and then reduce the heat and stir so that the liquid quickly comes down to 150F/65C. Then let the meat warm through at this gentle temperature. If you've taken the trouble to cook a meat dish gently, then apply the same care to reheating: it only takes moments at the boil to dry out a good stew. Bring the liquid alone to the boil, return the meat to it so that its surfaces are exposed to the boil very briefly, and then reduce the heat and stir so that the liquid quickly comes down to 150F/65C. Then let the meat warm through at this gentle temperature.

Safety As a general rule, leftover meats are safest when refrigerated or frozen within two hours of the end of cooking, and reheated quickly to at least 150F/65C before serving a second time. To be served cold, the meat should be well cooked to begin with, refrigerated quickly, and served within a day or two, fresh out of the refrigerator. If in doubt, it's best to heat the meat thoroughly, and compensate for the adverse effects on taste and texture by shredding the meat and moistening it with a flavorful liquid. As a general rule, leftover meats are safest when refrigerated or frozen within two hours of the end of cooking, and reheated quickly to at least 150F/65C before serving a second time. To be served cold, the meat should be well cooked to begin with, refrigerated quickly, and served within a day or two, fresh out of the refrigerator. If in doubt, it's best to heat the meat thoroughly, and compensate for the adverse effects on taste and texture by shredding the meat and moistening it with a flavorful liquid.

Offal, or Organ Meats Animals have muscles because they nourish themselves on other living things and must move around to find them. And they have innards - livers, kidneys, intestines, and other organs - to break down these complex foods and separate the useful building blocks from waste materials, to distribute nourishment throughout the body, and to coordinate the body's activities.

Composition of Organ MeatsOrgan meats are generally similar to skeletal muscle in their chemical composition, but often contain substantially more iron and vitamins thanks to their special tasks. (Poultry heart and liver and veal liver are especially rich in folate, a vitamin that is a.s.sociated with a significantly reduced risk of heart disease.) Their higher cholesterol levels reflect the fact that their cells are much smaller than muscle cells and therefore include proportionally more cell membrane, of which cholesterol is an essential component. The chart below lists broad ranges of nutrient content for organs of various animals. Cholesterol and iron levels are given in milligrams per 100 grams/3.6 oz; folate in micrograms per 100 grams.

Meat

Protein, % Protein, %

Standard cuts

2436 2436

Heart

2430 2430

Tongue

2126 2126

Gizzard

2530 2530