Quality Production: A French Example There have been small but significant exceptions to this general trend toward producing meat as cheaply as possible. In the 1960s, the French poultry industry found that many consumers were dissatisfied with the standard chicken's bland flavor and tendency to shrink and fall off the bone when cooked. Some producers then developed a production scheme guided by considerations of quality as well as efficiency. The result was the popular There have been small but significant exceptions to this general trend toward producing meat as cheaply as possible. In the 1960s, the French poultry industry found that many consumers were dissatisfied with the standard chicken's bland flavor and tendency to shrink and fall off the bone when cooked. Some producers then developed a production scheme guided by considerations of quality as well as efficiency. The result was the popular label rouge, label rouge, or "red label," which identifies chickens that have been produced according to specific standards: they are slow-growing varieties, fed primarily on grain rather than artificially concentrated feeds, raised in flocks of moderate size and with access to the outdoors, and slaughtered at 80 or more days of age rather than 40 to 50. Red-label chickens are leaner and more muscular than their standard industrial equivalent, lose a third less of their moisture during cooking, are firmer in texture, and have a more p.r.o.nounced flavor. Similar quality-based meat production schemes exist today in a number of countries. or "red label," which identifies chickens that have been produced according to specific standards: they are slow-growing varieties, fed primarily on grain rather than artificially concentrated feeds, raised in flocks of moderate size and with access to the outdoors, and slaughtered at 80 or more days of age rather than 40 to 50. Red-label chickens are leaner and more muscular than their standard industrial equivalent, lose a third less of their moisture during cooking, are firmer in texture, and have a more p.r.o.nounced flavor. Similar quality-based meat production schemes exist today in a number of countries.

USDA Beef Grades: The Triumph of Fat over LeanAs economist V. James Rhodes recounts, the USDA grading system for beef did not arise from an objective government a.n.a.lysis of meat quality. Instead, it was conceived and pushed during an agricultural recession in the early 1920s by cattlemen in the Midwest and East, who wanted to boost demand for their purebred, fat, corn-fed animals at the expense of lean dairy and "scrub" cattle. The chief propagandist was Alvin H. Sanders, editor of the Breeder's Gazette, Breeder's Gazette, who colorfully denigrated the slow cooking of economical cuts as "the same old continental European story of how to make a banquet out of a few bones and a dash of 'cat-meat.'" who colorfully denigrated the slow cooking of economical cuts as "the same old continental European story of how to make a banquet out of a few bones and a dash of 'cat-meat.'"Sanders and his colleagues set out to convince the country that "the muscular tissues of animals are made tender and fully flavored only by the presence of plenty of fat." In the summer of 1926, a well-placed breeder and New York financier named Oakleigh Thorne personally tutored the Secretary of Agriculture, who soon offered to begin free quality grading - based on the amount of visible fat marbling - at all packing houses subject to federal health supervision. U.S. "Prime" beef was born in 1927. A few years later, government-funded studies found that heavy marbling does not not guarantee either tender or flavorful beef. But the prestige of heavily marbled Prime beef persisted, and the United States became one of only three countries - the others being j.a.pan and Korea - to make fat content a major criterion for meat quality. guarantee either tender or flavorful beef. But the prestige of heavily marbled Prime beef persisted, and the United States became one of only three countries - the others being j.a.pan and Korea - to make fat content a major criterion for meat quality.

So economic forces have conspired to make mild, tender meat the modern norm, but small producers of more mature, flavorful meats, sometimes from rare "heirloom" breeds, are finding their own profitable market among consumers willing to pay a premium for quality.

Meat Animals and Their Characteristics Each of the animals that we raise for food has its own biological nature, and its own history of being shaped by humans to meet their changing needs and tastes. This section sketches the distinctive qualities of our more common meats, and the main styles in which they're now produced.

Domestic Meat Animals Cattle Cattle are descendents of the wild ox or aurochs, Cattle are descendents of the wild ox or aurochs, Bos primigenius, Bos primigenius, which browsed and grazed in forests and plains all across temperate Eurasia. Cattle are our largest meat animals and take the longest to reach adulthood, about two years, so their meat is relatively dark and flavorful. Breeders began to develop specialized meat animals in the 18th century. Britain produced the compact, fat-carca.s.sed English Hereford and Shorthorn and Scots Angus, while continental meat breeds remained closer to the rangy, lean draft type; these include the French Charolais and Limousin, and the Italian Chianina, which is probably the largest breed in the world (4,000-pound bulls, double the size of the English breeds). which browsed and grazed in forests and plains all across temperate Eurasia. Cattle are our largest meat animals and take the longest to reach adulthood, about two years, so their meat is relatively dark and flavorful. Breeders began to develop specialized meat animals in the 18th century. Britain produced the compact, fat-carca.s.sed English Hereford and Shorthorn and Scots Angus, while continental meat breeds remained closer to the rangy, lean draft type; these include the French Charolais and Limousin, and the Italian Chianina, which is probably the largest breed in the world (4,000-pound bulls, double the size of the English breeds).

American Beef The United States developed a uniform national style when federal grading standards for beef were introduced in 1927 (see box, p. 136), with the highest "Prime" grade reserved for young, fine-textured meat with abundant marbling. Purebred Angus and Hereford beef were the model for three decades. The shift in consumer preference to lower-fat meat brought revisions of the USDA grades to allow leaner meat to qualify for the Prime and Choice grades (see box below). Nowadays, U.S. beef comes mainly from steers (males castrated as calves) and heifers (females that have never calved) between 15 and 24 months old, and fed on grain for the last four to eight months. Recent years have brought a new interest in beef from cattle raised exclusively on gra.s.s, which is leaner and stronger in flavor (p. 134) than mainstream beef. The United States developed a uniform national style when federal grading standards for beef were introduced in 1927 (see box, p. 136), with the highest "Prime" grade reserved for young, fine-textured meat with abundant marbling. Purebred Angus and Hereford beef were the model for three decades. The shift in consumer preference to lower-fat meat brought revisions of the USDA grades to allow leaner meat to qualify for the Prime and Choice grades (see box below). Nowadays, U.S. beef comes mainly from steers (males castrated as calves) and heifers (females that have never calved) between 15 and 24 months old, and fed on grain for the last four to eight months. Recent years have brought a new interest in beef from cattle raised exclusively on gra.s.s, which is leaner and stronger in flavor (p. 134) than mainstream beef.

U.S. Beef Quality and Grades TodayDespite the prestige of Prime beef, the current consensus among meat scientists is that fat marbling accounts for no more than a third of the variation in the overall tenderness, juiciness, and flavor of cooked beef. The other important factors include breed, exercise and feed, animal age, conditions during slaughter, extent of post-slaughter aging (p. 143), and storage conditions before sale. Most of these are impossible for the consumer to evaluate, though there is a movement toward store and producer "brands" that may provide greater information about and consistency of production. Potentially more flavorful beef from older animals can be recognized by its darker color and coa.r.s.er muscle fibers.Most graded supermarket beef today is graded "Choice," with 410% fat, or "Select," with 24% fat. Prime beef is now around 1013% fat. Ground beef, which may be all lean meat or a mixture of lean and fat, ranges from 5 to 30% fat content.

European Beef Other beef-loving countries raise their cattle differently and have produced distinctive beefs. Italy prefers young meat from animals slaughtered at 1618 months. Until the advent of BSE, much French and British beef came from dairy stock several years old. According to a standard French handbook, Other beef-loving countries raise their cattle differently and have produced distinctive beefs. Italy prefers young meat from animals slaughtered at 1618 months. Until the advent of BSE, much French and British beef came from dairy stock several years old. According to a standard French handbook, Technologie Culinaire Technologie Culinaire (1995), the meat of an animal less than two years old is "completely insipid," while meat "at the summit of quality" comes from a steer three to four years old. But because the risk of an animal having BSE rises as it grows older, a number of countries now require that meat cattle be slaughtered at less than three years of age. In 2004, most French and British beef came from animals no older than 30 months. (1995), the meat of an animal less than two years old is "completely insipid," while meat "at the summit of quality" comes from a steer three to four years old. But because the risk of an animal having BSE rises as it grows older, a number of countries now require that meat cattle be slaughtered at less than three years of age. In 2004, most French and British beef came from animals no older than 30 months.

j.a.panese Beef j.a.pan prizes its j.a.pan prizes its shimofuri, shimofuri, or highly marbled beef, of which the best known comes from the Kobe region. Steers of the native Wagyu draft breed are slaughtered at 2430 months. High-quality heifers (and some steers) are identified and then fattened for a further year or more on grain. (Currently j.a.pan tests all meat cattle for BSE.) This process produces beef that is mature, flavorful, tender, and very rich, with as much as 40% marbling fat. The best cuts are usually sliced very thin, in 1.52 mm sheets, and simmered in broth for a few seconds in the one-pot dishes called or highly marbled beef, of which the best known comes from the Kobe region. Steers of the native Wagyu draft breed are slaughtered at 2430 months. High-quality heifers (and some steers) are identified and then fattened for a further year or more on grain. (Currently j.a.pan tests all meat cattle for BSE.) This process produces beef that is mature, flavorful, tender, and very rich, with as much as 40% marbling fat. The best cuts are usually sliced very thin, in 1.52 mm sheets, and simmered in broth for a few seconds in the one-pot dishes called sukiyaki sukiyaki and and shabu shabu. shabu shabu.

Veal Veal is the meat of young male offspring of dairy cows. Veal has traditionally been valued for being as different as possible from beef: pale, delicate in flavor, with a softer fat, and succulently tender thanks to its soluble collagen, which readily dissolves into gelatin when cooked. Calf flesh becomes more like beef with every day of ordinary life, so most veal calves aren't allowed an ordinary life: they're confined so that exercise won't darken, flavor, and toughen their muscles, and fed a low-iron diet with no gra.s.s to minimize the production of myoglobin pigment and prevent rumen development (p. 13), which would saturate and thus harden the fat. In the United States, veal generally comes from confined animals fed a soy or milk formula and slaughtered between 5 and 16 weeks old, when they weigh 150 to 500 lb/70230 kg. "Bob" or "drop" veal comes from unconfined, milk-fed animals three weeks old or less. "Free-range" and "grain-fed" veal have become increasingly common as more humane alternatives, but are more like beef in the color and flavor of their meat. Veal is the meat of young male offspring of dairy cows. Veal has traditionally been valued for being as different as possible from beef: pale, delicate in flavor, with a softer fat, and succulently tender thanks to its soluble collagen, which readily dissolves into gelatin when cooked. Calf flesh becomes more like beef with every day of ordinary life, so most veal calves aren't allowed an ordinary life: they're confined so that exercise won't darken, flavor, and toughen their muscles, and fed a low-iron diet with no gra.s.s to minimize the production of myoglobin pigment and prevent rumen development (p. 13), which would saturate and thus harden the fat. In the United States, veal generally comes from confined animals fed a soy or milk formula and slaughtered between 5 and 16 weeks old, when they weigh 150 to 500 lb/70230 kg. "Bob" or "drop" veal comes from unconfined, milk-fed animals three weeks old or less. "Free-range" and "grain-fed" veal have become increasingly common as more humane alternatives, but are more like beef in the color and flavor of their meat.

Sheep Along with goats, sheep were probably the first animals to be domesticated after the dog, thanks to their small size, around a tenth that of cattle, and their herding instinct. Most European breeds of sheep are specialized for milk or wool; there are relatively few specialized meat breeds. Along with goats, sheep were probably the first animals to be domesticated after the dog, thanks to their small size, around a tenth that of cattle, and their herding instinct. Most European breeds of sheep are specialized for milk or wool; there are relatively few specialized meat breeds.

Lamb and Mutton Lamb and sheep meat is finer grained and more tender than beef, but well endowed with red myoglobin and with flavor, including a characteristic odor (p. 134) that becomes more p.r.o.nounced with age. Pasture-feeding, particularly on alfalfa and clover, increases the levels of a compound called skatole, which also contributes a barnyardy element to pork flavor, while lambs finished on grain for a month before slaughter are milder. In the United States, lambs are sold in a range of ages and weights, from 1 to 12 months and 20100 lb/945 kg, under a variety of names, including "milk" and "hothouse" lamb for younger animals, "spring" and "Easter" lamb for the rest (though production is no longer truly seasonal). New Zealand lamb is pasture-fed but slaughtered at four months, younger than most American lamb, and remains mild. In France, older lambs ( Lamb and sheep meat is finer grained and more tender than beef, but well endowed with red myoglobin and with flavor, including a characteristic odor (p. 134) that becomes more p.r.o.nounced with age. Pasture-feeding, particularly on alfalfa and clover, increases the levels of a compound called skatole, which also contributes a barnyardy element to pork flavor, while lambs finished on grain for a month before slaughter are milder. In the United States, lambs are sold in a range of ages and weights, from 1 to 12 months and 20100 lb/945 kg, under a variety of names, including "milk" and "hothouse" lamb for younger animals, "spring" and "Easter" lamb for the rest (though production is no longer truly seasonal). New Zealand lamb is pasture-fed but slaughtered at four months, younger than most American lamb, and remains mild. In France, older lambs (mouton) and young female sheep (brebis) are aged for a week or more after slaughter, and develop an especially rich flavor.

Pigs Pigs are descendents of the Eurasian wild boar, Pigs are descendents of the Eurasian wild boar, Sus scrofa. Sus scrofa. If beef has been the most esteemed of meats in Europe and the Americas, pork has fed far more people, both there and in the rest of the world: in China the word for "pork" is also the generic word for "meat." The pig has the virtues of being a relatively small, voracious omnivore that grows rapidly and bears large litters. Its indiscriminate appet.i.te means that it can turn otherwise useless sc.r.a.ps into meat, but that meat can harbor and transmit parasites from infected animals and their remains (see p. 126 on trichinosis). Perhaps in part for this reason, and because pigs are difficult to herd and will devour field crops, pork eating has been forbidden among various peoples, notably Middle Eastern Jews and Muslims. If beef has been the most esteemed of meats in Europe and the Americas, pork has fed far more people, both there and in the rest of the world: in China the word for "pork" is also the generic word for "meat." The pig has the virtues of being a relatively small, voracious omnivore that grows rapidly and bears large litters. Its indiscriminate appet.i.te means that it can turn otherwise useless sc.r.a.ps into meat, but that meat can harbor and transmit parasites from infected animals and their remains (see p. 126 on trichinosis). Perhaps in part for this reason, and because pigs are difficult to herd and will devour field crops, pork eating has been forbidden among various peoples, notably Middle Eastern Jews and Muslims.

There are several specialized styles of pigs, including lard breeds, bacon breeds, and meat breeds, some large-boned and ma.s.sive, some (Iberian and Basque ham pigs) relatively lean, slow-growing, small and dark-fleshed, much like their wild south-Europe ancestors. Today most of the specialized breeds have been displaced by the fast-growing descendents of a few European bacon and meat breeds.

Pork Like modern beef, modern pork comes from much younger and leaner animals than was true a century ago. Pigs are typically slaughtered at six months and 220 lb/100 kg, just as they reach s.e.xual maturity, when the connective tissue is still relatively soluble and the meat tender. Individual cuts of American and European pork generally contain half to a fifth of the fat they did in 1980. Pork is a pale meat because the pig uses its muscles more intermittently than do cattle and sheep, and therefore has a lower proportion of red muscle fibers (around 15%). Some small Chinese and European breeds have darker and significantly more flavorful flesh. Like modern beef, modern pork comes from much younger and leaner animals than was true a century ago. Pigs are typically slaughtered at six months and 220 lb/100 kg, just as they reach s.e.xual maturity, when the connective tissue is still relatively soluble and the meat tender. Individual cuts of American and European pork generally contain half to a fifth of the fat they did in 1980. Pork is a pale meat because the pig uses its muscles more intermittently than do cattle and sheep, and therefore has a lower proportion of red muscle fibers (around 15%). Some small Chinese and European breeds have darker and significantly more flavorful flesh.

Domestic Meat Birds Chickens Chickens are descendents of the aggressive, pugnacious red jungle fowl of northern India and southern China. Chickens are descendents of the aggressive, pugnacious red jungle fowl of northern India and southern China. Gallus gallus Gallus gallus is a member of the pheasant family or Phasianidae, a large, originally Eurasian group of birds that tend to colonize open forest or the edge between field and wood. Chickens seem to have been domesticated in the vicinity of Thailand before 7500 is a member of the pheasant family or Phasianidae, a large, originally Eurasian group of birds that tend to colonize open forest or the edge between field and wood. Chickens seem to have been domesticated in the vicinity of Thailand before 7500 BCE BCE, and arrived in the Mediterranean around 500 BCE BCE. In the West, they were largely unpampered farmyard scavengers until the 19th-century importation of large Chinese birds created a veritable chicken-breeding craze in Europe and North America. Ma.s.s production began in the 20th century, when much of the genetic diversity in meat chickens evaporated in favor of a fast-growing cross between the broad-breasted Cornish (developed in Britain from Asian fighting stock) and the U.S. White Plymouth Rock.

Chicken Styles The modern chicken is a product of the drive to breed fast-growing animals and raise them as rapidly and on as little feed as possible. It's an impressive feat of agricultural engineering to produce a 4-pound bird on 8 pounds of feed in six weeks! Because such a bird grows very fast and lives very little, its meat is fairly bland, and that of the younger "game hen" or "poussin" even more so. The modern chicken is a product of the drive to breed fast-growing animals and raise them as rapidly and on as little feed as possible. It's an impressive feat of agricultural engineering to produce a 4-pound bird on 8 pounds of feed in six weeks! Because such a bird grows very fast and lives very little, its meat is fairly bland, and that of the younger "game hen" or "poussin" even more so.

Largely in reaction to the image of industrial chicken, so-called "free range" chickens are now sold in the United States, but the term only means that the birds have access to an outdoor pen. "Roasting" chickens and capons (castrated males) are raised to double or more the age of the standard broiler, are heavier, and so have given their leg muscles more exercise; the capon may also be more succulent thanks to the infiltration of marbling fat.

Turkeys Turkeys are also members of the sedentary pheasant family. Turkeys are also members of the sedentary pheasant family. Meleagris gallopavo Meleagris gallopavo descended from ancestors that once ranged through North America and Asia. The modern colossal turkey dates from 19271930, when a breeder in British Columbia developed a 40 lb/18 kg bird with oversized flight and thigh muscles, and breeders in the U.S. northwest used his stock to perfect the Broad-Breasted Bronze. The little-used breast muscle is tender, mild, and lean; the leg muscles that support the breast are well-exercised, dark, and flavorful. descended from ancestors that once ranged through North America and Asia. The modern colossal turkey dates from 19271930, when a breeder in British Columbia developed a 40 lb/18 kg bird with oversized flight and thigh muscles, and breeders in the U.S. northwest used his stock to perfect the Broad-Breasted Bronze. The little-used breast muscle is tender, mild, and lean; the leg muscles that support the breast are well-exercised, dark, and flavorful.

Today, industrial facilities produce 1420 lb/69 kg birds year-round in 1218 weeks; some small American farms extend the period to 24 weeks, while the name-controlled French Bresse turkey is raised for 32 weeks or more, confined and fattened for the last several weeks on corn and milk.

Ducks and Squab Ducks and squab are notable for having dark, flavorful breast meat, abundantly endowed with myoglobin-rich red muscle fibers, thanks to their ability to fly hundreds of miles in a day with few stops. The most common breeds of duck in China, much of Europe, and the United States are descendents of the wild green-headed mallard, Ducks and squab are notable for having dark, flavorful breast meat, abundantly endowed with myoglobin-rich red muscle fibers, thanks to their ability to fly hundreds of miles in a day with few stops. The most common breeds of duck in China, much of Europe, and the United States are descendents of the wild green-headed mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, Anas platyrhynchos, an aquatic migratory bird that puts on as much as a third of its carca.s.s weight in fat for fuel and under-skin insulation. Ducks are eaten at two ages: in the egg as 1520-day embryos (the Philippine boiled delicacy an aquatic migratory bird that puts on as much as a third of its carca.s.s weight in fat for fuel and under-skin insulation. Ducks are eaten at two ages: in the egg as 1520-day embryos (the Philippine boiled delicacy balut balut), and at 6 to 16 weeks. The Muscovy duck is an entirely different bird: Cairina moschata, Cairina moschata, the greater wood duck, which is native to the west coast of Central and northern South America, differs in three important ways from mallard varieties: it lays down about a third less body fat, grows significantly larger, and has a more p.r.o.nounced flavor. the greater wood duck, which is native to the west coast of Central and northern South America, differs in three important ways from mallard varieties: it lays down about a third less body fat, grows significantly larger, and has a more p.r.o.nounced flavor.

Squab, dove, and pigeon are various names for the European rock dove, Columba livia, Columba livia, a species that includes the common city pigeon; "squab" means a bird young enough that it has never flown. Its flying muscles weigh five times as much as its leg muscles. Today, domestic squab are raised for four weeks and slaughtered at about 1 lb/450 g, just before they're mature enough to fly. a species that includes the common city pigeon; "squab" means a bird young enough that it has never flown. Its flying muscles weigh five times as much as its leg muscles. Today, domestic squab are raised for four weeks and slaughtered at about 1 lb/450 g, just before they're mature enough to fly.

Game Animals and Birds Wild animals - sometimes called game game or or venison venison - have always been especially prized in the autumn, when they fatten themselves for the coming winter. While the autumn game season is still celebrated in many European restaurants with wild duck, hare, pheasant, partridge, deer, and boar, in the United States wild meats are banned from commerce (only inspected meat can be sold legally, and hunted meat is not inspected). Most "game" meats available to the U.S. consumer these days come from animals raised on farms and ranches. They're perhaps better described as "semi-domestic" meats. Some of these animals have been raised in captivity since Roman times, but haven't been as intensively bred as the domesticated animals, and so are still much like their wild counterparts. - have always been especially prized in the autumn, when they fatten themselves for the coming winter. While the autumn game season is still celebrated in many European restaurants with wild duck, hare, pheasant, partridge, deer, and boar, in the United States wild meats are banned from commerce (only inspected meat can be sold legally, and hunted meat is not inspected). Most "game" meats available to the U.S. consumer these days come from animals raised on farms and ranches. They're perhaps better described as "semi-domestic" meats. Some of these animals have been raised in captivity since Roman times, but haven't been as intensively bred as the domesticated animals, and so are still much like their wild counterparts.

Food Words: Turkey TurkeyOrnithological and geographical confusion appear to be responsible for the common names of this bird, which came late to Europe. The turkey was first seen by the Spanish in Mexico around 1518, and they named it with variants on the word pavo, pavo, "pea fowl." In most other European languages its early names referred to India: French "pea fowl." In most other European languages its early names referred to India: French dinde, dindon dinde, dindon ( (d'Inde, "of India"), German "of India"), German Kalikutische Hahn Kalikutische Hahn ("hen of Calicut," an Indian port), Italian ("hen of Calicut," an Indian port), Italian pollo d'India pollo d'India ("fowl of India"). The turkey was indeed in India by 1615, so it could well have been introduced to much of Europe via Asia. The English connection with Turkey goes back quite early, to around 1540, and is more obscure. It may reflect a vague impression that the bird came from some outpost of the exotic Ottoman Empire, which originated in and was identified with Turkey. ("fowl of India"). The turkey was indeed in India by 1615, so it could well have been introduced to much of Europe via Asia. The English connection with Turkey goes back quite early, to around 1540, and is more obscure. It may reflect a vague impression that the bird came from some outpost of the exotic Ottoman Empire, which originated in and was identified with Turkey.

Today Americans are buying more venison (various species of deer and antelope), buffalo, and other game meats thanks to their distinctive flavors and leanness. The very low fat content of game meat causes it to conduct heat and cook faster than standard meats, and to dry out more easily. Cooks often shield it from direct oven heat by "barding" it with a sheet of fat or fatty bacon, and baste it during cooking, which cools the meat surface by evaporation and slows the movement of heat into the meat (p. 158).

Gaminess True wild game has the appeal of rich, variable flavor, thanks to its mature age, free exercise, and mixed diet. Carried to excess, this interesting wild flavor becomes "gamy." In the time of Brillat-Savarin, game was typically allowed to hang for days or weeks until it began to rot. This treatment was called True wild game has the appeal of rich, variable flavor, thanks to its mature age, free exercise, and mixed diet. Carried to excess, this interesting wild flavor becomes "gamy." In the time of Brillat-Savarin, game was typically allowed to hang for days or weeks until it began to rot. This treatment was called mortification mortification or or faisandage faisandage (after the pheasant, (after the pheasant, faisan faisan), and had two purposes: it tenderized the meat, and further heightened its "wild" flavor. Gamy game is no longer the style. Modern farmed animals are often relatively sedentary, eat a uniform diet, and are slaughtered before they reach s.e.xual maturity, so they're usually milder in flavor and more tender than their wild counterparts. Since distinctive meat flavors reside in the fat, they can be minimized by careful tr.i.m.m.i.n.g.

Some Characteristics of Meat BirdsIn general, older and larger birds and those with more red fibers have a more p.r.o.nounced flavor.

Bird

Age, weeks Age, weeks

Chickens

Industrial broiler, fryer

68 68

Roaster

1220 1220

French label rouge label rouge

11.5 11.5.

French appellation controlee appellation controlee

16 16.

Game hen

56 56

Capon

<32><>

Stewing fowl

>40 >40.

Turkeys

Industrial

1218 1218

French fermiere, fermiere, U.S. premium brands U.S. premium brands

24 24.

French appellation controlee appellation controlee

32 32.

Duck

616 616

Goose

2428 2428

Quail (wild)

610 610

Squab

45 45

Guinea hen

1015 1015

Pheasant