143 would have been considered particularly well stocked: would have been considered particularly well stocked: In 1290, the library at the Sorbonne, among the biggest in the world, held exactly 1,017 books-fewer t.i.tles than many readers of this book will devour in a lifetime. In 1290, the library at the Sorbonne, among the biggest in the world, held exactly 1,017 books-fewer t.i.tles than many readers of this book will devour in a lifetime.

144 hadn't even been invented yet: hadn't even been invented yet: For more on the history of the display of books, see Petroski, For more on the history of the display of books, see Petroski, The Book on the Bookshelf The Book on the Bookshelf, pp. 40-42.

144 still weighed more than ten pounds: still weighed more than ten pounds: Illich, Illich, In the Vineyard of the Text In the Vineyard of the Text, p. 112.

144 around the same time that chapter divisions were introduced: around the same time that chapter divisions were introduced: The Comprehensive Concordance to the Holy Scriptures The Comprehensive Concordance to the Holy Scriptures (1894), pp. 8-9. (1894), pp. 8-9.

144 reading the text all the way through: reading the text all the way through: Draaisma, Draaisma, Metaphors of Memory Metaphors of Memory, p. 34.

145 "pre- and post-index Middle Ages": "pre- and post-index Middle Ages": Illich, Illich, In the Vineyard of the Text In the Vineyard of the Text, p. 103.

145 labyrinthine world of external memory: labyrinthine world of external memory: A point made by Draaisma in A point made by Draaisma in Metaphors of Memory. Metaphors of Memory.

146 "living concordance": "living concordance": In the words of Carruthers, In the words of Carruthers, The Craft of Thought The Craft of Thought, p. 31.

146 how to memorize playing cards: how to memorize playing cards: Corsi, Corsi, The Enchanted Loom The Enchanted Loom, p. 21.

147 "the letter A": "the letter A": Translation quoted from Carruthers, Translation quoted from Carruthers, The Book of Memory The Book of Memory, p. 114.

147 "intensive" to "extensive" reading: "intensive" to "extensive" reading: Darnton attributes this idea to Rolf Engelsing, who cites the transformation as happening as late as the eighteenth century. Darnton attributes this idea to Rolf Engelsing, who cites the transformation as happening as late as the eighteenth century. The Kiss of Lamourette The Kiss of Lamourette, p. 165.

149 one of the most famous men in all of Europe: one of the most famous men in all of Europe: Yates's a.s.sessment in Yates's a.s.sessment in The Art of Memory The Art of Memory, p. 129.

149 round, seven-tiered edifice: round, seven-tiered edifice: Yates tried to reconstruct the blueprints for the theater in Yates tried to reconstruct the blueprints for the theater in The Art of Memory The Art of Memory.

150 "and all the things that are in the entire world": "and all the things that are in the entire world": Rossi, Rossi, Logic and the Art of Memory Logic and the Art of Memory, p. 74.

150 hundreds-perhaps thousands-of cards were drafted: hundreds-perhaps thousands-of cards were drafted: Corsi, Corsi, The Enchanted Loom The Enchanted Loom, p. 23.

150 over the course of a week: over the course of a week: Much of this information comes from Douglas Radcliff-Ulmstead (1972), "Giulio Camillo's Emblems of Memory," Much of this information comes from Douglas Radcliff-Ulmstead (1972), "Giulio Camillo's Emblems of Memory," Yale French Studies Yale French Studies 47, 47-56. 47, 47-56.

151 the apotheosis of an entire era's ideas about memory: the apotheosis of an entire era's ideas about memory: More recently, virtual reality gurus have come to see Camillo's memory theater as the historical forerunner of their entire field-and have traced its influence all the way to the Internet (the ultimate universal memory palace) and the Apple and Windows operating systems, whose spatially arranged folders and icons are just a modern reworking of Camillo's mnemonic principles. See Peter Matussek (2001), "The Renaissance of the Theater of Memory," More recently, virtual reality gurus have come to see Camillo's memory theater as the historical forerunner of their entire field-and have traced its influence all the way to the Internet (the ultimate universal memory palace) and the Apple and Windows operating systems, whose spatially arranged folders and icons are just a modern reworking of Camillo's mnemonic principles. See Peter Matussek (2001), "The Renaissance of the Theater of Memory," Ja.n.u.s Ja.n.u.s 8 8 Paragrana Paragrana 10, 66-70. 10, 66-70.

152 "riding a sea monster": "riding a sea monster": These translations are from Rowland, These translations are from Rowland, Giordano Bruno Giordano Bruno, pp. 123-24.

152 "a parrot on his head": "a parrot on his head": Eco, Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language The Search for the Perfect Language, p.138.

153 nine pairs of cranial nerves: nine pairs of cranial nerves: There are now twelve known pairs of cranial nerves. There are now twelve known pairs of cranial nerves.

153 almost a half million dollars: almost a half million dollars: Fellows and Larrowe, Fellows and Larrowe, Loisette Exposed Loisette Exposed, p. 217.

154 a memory course lasting several weeks: a memory course lasting several weeks: Walsh and Zlatic (1981), "Mark Twain and the Art of Memory," Walsh and Zlatic (1981), "Mark Twain and the Art of Memory," American Literature American Literature 53, no. 2, 214-31. 53, no. 2, 214-31.

8: THE OK PLATEAU.

164 Johann Winkelmann: Johann Winkelmann: The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz also wrote about a similar system in the seventeenth century, but it's quite likely that the idea of making numbers more memorable by turning them into words was discovered much earlier. The Greeks had an acrophonic system, wherein the first letter of each numeral could be used to represent the number, so that, for example, P represented the number five, for The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz also wrote about a similar system in the seventeenth century, but it's quite likely that the idea of making numbers more memorable by turning them into words was discovered much earlier. The Greeks had an acrophonic system, wherein the first letter of each numeral could be used to represent the number, so that, for example, P represented the number five, for penta penta. In Hebrew, each letter of the aleph bet aleph bet corresponds to a number, a quirk that Kabbalists have used to seek out hidden numerical meanings in Scripture. n.o.body knows whether these systems were ever used to memorize numbers, but it's hard to imagine that some Mediterranean businessman who had to do mental accounting wouldn't have stumbled onto such an obvious idea. corresponds to a number, a quirk that Kabbalists have used to seek out hidden numerical meanings in Scripture. n.o.body knows whether these systems were ever used to memorize numbers, but it's hard to imagine that some Mediterranean businessman who had to do mental accounting wouldn't have stumbled onto such an obvious idea.

166 advance the sport of compet.i.tive memory by a quantum leap: advance the sport of compet.i.tive memory by a quantum leap: Ed gave me the following example of his Millennium PAO system at work: "The number 115 is Psmith, the stylish character from the P. G. Wodehouse books (the P is silent, by the way, as in 'phthisis' or 'ptarmigan'). His action is that he gives away an umbrella that doesn't belong to him to a delicate young lady he sees stranded in a rainstorm. The number 614 is Bill Clinton, who smokes but does not inhale marijuana, and the number 227 is Kurt G.o.del, the obsessive logician, who starved himself to death by accident because he was too busy doing formal logic. Now, I can combine these three numbers to form nine-digit numbers that have anecdotal coherence. For example, 115,614,227 becomes Psmith deigning to puff at-without going so far as to inhale-formal logic. Now this is quite understandable since logic is, after all, an activity unsuited to the true English gent. If you change the ordering of the numbers, you get a different anecdote. The number 614,227,115 becomes Bill Clinton mortally forgetting to eat because he's too busy pinching umbrellas for pretty young girls. This image will interact with my pre-existing knowledge of Clinton's life-seeing as how he has gotten into trouble before with the inappropriate handling of cylindrical objects for young ladies-and the chance activation of this a.s.sociation, and the glimmer of accompanying humor, serves to better the stability of the memory. See, each possible combination has its own dynamic feel and emotion, and very often, interestingly, this will be the first thing in recall to pop into one's head, before the other details slowly shuffle into view. I might also mention that this works as an excellent idea-generator and const.i.tutes sound afternoon entertainment." Ed gave me the following example of his Millennium PAO system at work: "The number 115 is Psmith, the stylish character from the P. G. Wodehouse books (the P is silent, by the way, as in 'phthisis' or 'ptarmigan'). His action is that he gives away an umbrella that doesn't belong to him to a delicate young lady he sees stranded in a rainstorm. The number 614 is Bill Clinton, who smokes but does not inhale marijuana, and the number 227 is Kurt G.o.del, the obsessive logician, who starved himself to death by accident because he was too busy doing formal logic. Now, I can combine these three numbers to form nine-digit numbers that have anecdotal coherence. For example, 115,614,227 becomes Psmith deigning to puff at-without going so far as to inhale-formal logic. Now this is quite understandable since logic is, after all, an activity unsuited to the true English gent. If you change the ordering of the numbers, you get a different anecdote. The number 614,227,115 becomes Bill Clinton mortally forgetting to eat because he's too busy pinching umbrellas for pretty young girls. This image will interact with my pre-existing knowledge of Clinton's life-seeing as how he has gotten into trouble before with the inappropriate handling of cylindrical objects for young ladies-and the chance activation of this a.s.sociation, and the glimmer of accompanying humor, serves to better the stability of the memory. See, each possible combination has its own dynamic feel and emotion, and very often, interestingly, this will be the first thing in recall to pop into one's head, before the other details slowly shuffle into view. I might also mention that this works as an excellent idea-generator and const.i.tutes sound afternoon entertainment."

171 lesser skaters work more on jumps they've already mastered: lesser skaters work more on jumps they've already mastered: J. M. Deakin and S. Cobley (2003), "A Search for Deliberate Practice: An Examination of the Practice Environments in Figureskating and Volleyball," in J. M. Deakin and S. Cobley (2003), "A Search for Deliberate Practice: An Examination of the Practice Environments in Figureskating and Volleyball," in Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise (edited by J. L. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson). (edited by J. L. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson).

172 trying to understand the expert's thinking at each step: trying to understand the expert's thinking at each step: K. A. Ericsson, et al. (1993), "The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance," K. A. Ericsson, et al. (1993), "The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance," Psychological Review Psychological Review 100 no. 3, 363-406. 100 no. 3, 363-406.

172 working through old games: working through old games: N. Charness, R. Krampe, and U. Mayer (1996), "The Role of Practice and Coaching in Entrepreneurial Skill Domains: An International Comparison of Life-Span Chess Skill Acquisition," in Ericsson, N. Charness, R. Krampe, and U. Mayer (1996), "The Role of Practice and Coaching in Entrepreneurial Skill Domains: An International Comparison of Life-Span Chess Skill Acquisition," in Ericsson, The Road to Excellence The Road to Excellence, pp. 51-80.

172 repeatedly flashed words 10 to 15 percent faster: repeatedly flashed words 10 to 15 percent faster: Dvorak, Dvorak, Typewriting Behavior Typewriting Behavior.

173 have a tendency to get less and less accurate over the years: have a tendency to get less and less accurate over the years: C. A. Beam, E. F. Conant, and E. A. Sickles (2003), "a.s.sociation of Volume and Volume-Independent Factors with Accuracy in Screening Mammogram Interpretation," C. A. Beam, E. F. Conant, and E. A. Sickles (2003), "a.s.sociation of Volume and Volume-Independent Factors with Accuracy in Screening Mammogram Interpretation," Journal of the National Cancer Inst.i.tute Journal of the National Cancer Inst.i.tute 95, 282-90. 95, 282-90.

174 now acquired by your average high school junior: now acquired by your average high school junior: Ericsson, Ericsson, The Road to Excellence The Road to Excellence, p. 31.

9: THE TALENTED TENTH.

192 "no sensibilities, no soul": "no sensibilities, no soul": Ravitch, Ravitch, Left Back Left Back, p. 21.

193 "mental discipline": "mental discipline": Ravitch, Ravitch, Left Back Left Back, p. 61.

203 inventory and invention: inventory and invention: Carruthers, Carruthers, The Craft of Thought The Craft of Thought, p. 11.

208 a group of baseball fanatics: a group of baseball fanatics: G. J. Spillich (1979), "Text Processing of Domain-Related Information for Individuals with High and Low Domain Knowledge," G. J. Spillich (1979), "Text Processing of Domain-Related Information for Individuals with High and Low Domain Knowledge," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14, 506-22. 14, 506-22.

208 either a witch trial or a piece of correspondence: either a witch trial or a piece of correspondence: Frederick M. Hess, Frederick M. Hess, Still at Risk Still at Risk pp. 1-2 pp. 1-2.

10: THE LITTLE RAIN MAN IN ALL OF US.

215 meet up with Daniel: meet up with Daniel: I e-mailed Daniel and asked if he'd be willing to meet with me. He wrote back, "I normally request a fee for interviews with the media." After I explained to him why that would be impossible, he agreed to see me on the condition that I mention the Web site of his online tutoring company, I e-mailed Daniel and asked if he'd be willing to meet with me. He wrote back, "I normally request a fee for interviews with the media." After I explained to him why that would be impossible, he agreed to see me on the condition that I mention the Web site of his online tutoring company, optimnem.co.uk.

217 its own separate syndrome: its own separate syndrome: Asperger's occurs in about one in two hundred people, and synesthesia probably in about one in two thousand, but that may be an underestimate. n.o.body knows if both conditions have ever existed in the same person before, but a.s.suming they occur independently of each other, the laws of probability would suggest that one in 400,000 people should have both synesthesia and Asperger's. That would be about 750 people in the United States alone. Asperger's occurs in about one in two hundred people, and synesthesia probably in about one in two thousand, but that may be an underestimate. n.o.body knows if both conditions have ever existed in the same person before, but a.s.suming they occur independently of each other, the laws of probability would suggest that one in 400,000 people should have both synesthesia and Asperger's. That would be about 750 people in the United States alone.

219 legally changed in 2001: legally changed in 2001: Daniel is fully open about having changed his name. He told me he didn't like the sound of his old family name, Corney, Daniel is fully open about having changed his name. He told me he didn't like the sound of his old family name, Corney, 221 more than nine thousand books he has read at about ten seconds a page: more than nine thousand books he has read at about ten seconds a page: It should be noted that this claim was never investigated in a peer-reviewed journal. I suspect this bit of hyperbole might not have held up to careful scrutiny. It should be noted that this claim was never investigated in a peer-reviewed journal. I suspect this bit of hyperbole might not have held up to careful scrutiny.

226 it's a skill that can be learned: it's a skill that can be learned: Eventually my investigation of mental mathematics led me to a remarkable book called Eventually my investigation of mental mathematics led me to a remarkable book called The Great Mental Calculators: The Psychology, Methods, and Lives of Calculating Prodigies Past and Present The Great Mental Calculators: The Psychology, Methods, and Lives of Calculating Prodigies Past and Present by a psychologist named Steven Smith. Smith dismisses the notion that there's anything special about the brains of calculation prodigies, and insists that their abilities derive purely from obsessive interest. He compares calculation to juggling: "Any sufficiently diligent non-handicapped person can learn to juggle, but the skill is actually acquired only by a handful of highly motivated individuals." George Packer Bidder, one of the most renowned human calculators of all time, even went so far as to express "a strong conviction, that mental arithmetic can be taught, as easily, if not even with greater facility, than ordinary arithmetic." by a psychologist named Steven Smith. Smith dismisses the notion that there's anything special about the brains of calculation prodigies, and insists that their abilities derive purely from obsessive interest. He compares calculation to juggling: "Any sufficiently diligent non-handicapped person can learn to juggle, but the skill is actually acquired only by a handful of highly motivated individuals." George Packer Bidder, one of the most renowned human calculators of all time, even went so far as to express "a strong conviction, that mental arithmetic can be taught, as easily, if not even with greater facility, than ordinary arithmetic."

230 would have been able to do as well: would have been able to do as well: At UCSD, Ramachandran and his graduate students administered three other tests of Tammet's synesthesia. Using Play-Doh, they asked him to create 3-D models of twenty of his number shapes. When they gave him a surprise retest twenty-four hours later, all of his shapes matched up. Then they hooked up an electrode to his fingers and flashed him the digits of pi-but with a few errant digits thrown in. They measured his galvanic skin response and noticed that it jumped dramatically when he confronted a digit that didn't belong. At UCSD, Ramachandran and his graduate students administered three other tests of Tammet's synesthesia. Using Play-Doh, they asked him to create 3-D models of twenty of his number shapes. When they gave him a surprise retest twenty-four hours later, all of his shapes matched up. Then they hooked up an electrode to his fingers and flashed him the digits of pi-but with a few errant digits thrown in. They measured his galvanic skin response and noticed that it jumped dramatically when he confronted a digit that didn't belong.

The UCSD researchers also administered the Stroop test, another a.s.sessment commonly used to verify synesthesia. First they gave Daniel three minutes to memorize a matrix of a hundred numbers. After five minutes, he was able to recall sixty-eight of those numbers, and three days later he still remembered them perfectly. Then they gave him three minutes to memorize a matrix of a hundred numbers in which the size of the numbers on the page corresponded to how Daniel described the numbers in his mind. Nines were printed larger than other numbers and sixes were printed smaller. In this case, he memorized fifty digits, and held onto all of them for three days. Finally, they gave him a test where the numbers were printed in incongruous sizes. Nines were printed small. Sixes were printed large. They wanted to see if it would throw Daniel off his game. Did it ever. Daniel was only able to remember sixteen numbers, and after three days, he could remember exactly zero of them. Ramachandran and his students put together a prepublication conference poster on Daniel t.i.tled "Does Synesthesia Contribute to Mathematical Savant Skills?" in which they refer to him by the pseudonym Arithmos. It includes a caveat: "As in all cases like this we need to consider the fact that Arithmos may be performing almost all of his 'mental feats' via pure memorization."

230 they didn't find this: they didn't find this: D. Bor, J. Bilington, and S. Baron-Cohen (2007), "Savant memory for digits in a case of synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome is related to hyperactivity in the lateral prefrontal cortex." D. Bor, J. Bilington, and S. Baron-Cohen (2007), "Savant memory for digits in a case of synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome is related to hyperactivity in the lateral prefrontal cortex." Neurocase Neurocase 13, 311-319. 13, 311-319.

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