Figure 102 shows a German pen, that can be regulated to draw lines of various breadths. The head of the adjusting screw is made rather larger than usual, and is divided at the under side into twenty divisional notches, each alternate notch being marked by a figure on the face. By this arrangement a uniform thickness of line may be maintained after filling or clearing the pen, and any desired thickness may be repeated, without any loss of time in trial of thickness on the paper. A small spring automatically holds the divided screw-head in any place. With very little practice the click of the spring in the notches becomes a sufficient guide for adjustment, without reference to the figures on the screw-head. Another meritorious feature of this pen is that it is armed with sapphire points, which retain their sharpness very long, and thus save the time and labor required to keep ordinary instruments in order for the performance of fine work.

An example of line shading in perspective drawing is shown in the drawing of a pipe threading stock and die in Figure 103.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 103.]

Shading by means of lines may be used with excellent effect in mechanical drawing, not only to distinguish round from flat surfaces, but also to denote to the eye the relative distances of surfaces. Figure 104 represents a cylindrical pin line shaded. As the light is supposed to come in from the upper left-hand corner, it will evidently fall more upon the left-hand half of the stem, and of the collar or bead, hence those parts are shaded with lighter or finer lines than the right-hand sides are.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 104.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 105.]

Two cylindrical pieces that join each other may be line shaded at whatever angle they may join. Figure 105 represents two such pieces, one at a right angle to the other, both being of equal diameter.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 106.]

Figure 106 represents a drawing of a lathe centre shaded by lines, the lines on the taper parts meeting those on the parallel part A, and becoming more nearly parallel to the axis of the piece as the centre of the piece is approached. The same is the case where a piece having a curved outline is drawn, which is shown in Figure 107, where the set of the bow-pen is gradually increased for drawing the shade lines of the curves. The centres of the shade curves fall in each case upon a line at a right angle to the axis of the piece, as upon the lines A, B, C, the dotted lines showing the radius for each curve.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 107.]

The lines are made finer by closing the pen points by means of the screw provided for that purpose. The pen requires for this purpose to be cleaned of the ink that is apt to dry in it.

In Figure 108 line shading is shown applied to a ball or sphere, while in Figure 109 it is shown applied to a pin in a socket which is shown in section. By showing the hollow in connection with the round piece, the difference between the two is quite clearly seen, the light falling most upon the upper half of the pin and the lower half of the hole. This perhaps is more clearly shown in the piece of tube in Figure 110, where the thickness of the tube showing is a great aid to the eye. So, likewise, the hollow or hole is more clearly seen where the piece is shown in section, as in Figure 111, which is the case even though the piece be taper as in the figure. If the body be bell-mouthed, as in Figure 112, the hollow curve is readily shown by the shading; but to line shade a hollow curve without any of these aids to the eye, as say, to show a half of a tin tube, is a very difficult matter if the piece is to look natural; and all that can be done is to shade the top darkly and let the light fall mostly at and near the bottom. An example of line shading to denote the relative distances from the eye of various surfaces is given in Figure 113, where the surfaces most distant are the most shaded. The flat surfaces are lined with lines of equal breadth, the degrees of shading being governed by the width apart of the lines.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 108.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 109.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 110.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 111.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 112.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 113.]

Line shading is often used to denote that the piece represented is to be of wood, the shade lines being in some cases regular in combination with regular ones, or entirely irregular, as in Figure 114.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 114.]

CHAPTER V.

_MARKING DIMENSIONS._

The dimensions of mechanical drawings are best marked in red ink so that they will show plainly, and that the lines denoting the points at which the dimension is given shall not be confounded with the lines of the drawing.

The dimension figures should be as large as the drawing will conveniently admit; and should be marked at every point at which a shoulder or change of form or dimension occurs, except in the case of straight tapers which have their dimensions marked at each end of the taper.

In the case of a single piece standing by itself the dimension figures may be marked all standing one way, so as to be read without changing the position of the operator or requiring to turn the drawing around.

This is done in Figure 115, which represents the drawing of a key. The figures are here placed outside the drawing in all cases where it can be done, which, in the case of a small drawing, leaves the same clearer.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 115.]

In Figure 116 the dimensions are marked, running parallel to the dimension for which they are given, so that all measures of length stand lengthwise, and those of breadth across the drawing.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 116.]

Figure 117 represents a key with a sharp-cornered step in it. Here the two dimensions forming the steps cannot both be coincident with it; hence they are marked as near to it as convenient, it being understood that they apply to the step, and not to one side of it. When the step has a round instead of a sharp corner, the radius of the arc of the corner may be marked, as shown in Figure 118.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 117.]

Figure 119 represents a key drawn in perspective, so that all the dimensions may be marked on one view. Perspective sketches may be used for single pieces, as they denote the shape of the piece more clearly to the eye. On account of the skill required in their production, they are not, however, used in mechanical drawing, except as in the case of Patent-Office or similar drawings, where the form and construction rather than the dimension is the information sought to be conveyed.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 118.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 119.]

CHAPTER VI.

_THE ARRANGEMENT OF DIFFERENT VIEWS._

THE DIFFERENT VIEWS OF A MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The word _elevation_, as applied to mechanical drawing, means simply a view; hence a side elevation is a side view, or an end elevation is an end view.

The word _plan_ is employed in place of the word top; hence a plan view is a top view, or a view looking down upon the top of the piece.

A _general_ view means a view showing the machine put together or a.s.sembled, while a detail drawing is one containing a detail, as a part of the machine or a single piece disconnected from the other parts of the whole machine.

It is obviously desirable in a mechanical drawing to present the piece of work in as few views as possible, but in all cases there must be a sufficient number to permit of the dimensions in every necessary direction to be marked on the drawing. Suppose, then, that in Figure 120 we have to represent a solid cylinder, whose length equals its diameter, and it is obvious that both the diameter and length may be marked in the one view given; hence, a second view, such as shown by the circle in Figure 121, is unnecessary, except it be to distinguish the body from a cube, in which the one view would also be sufficient whereon to mark all the dimensions necessary to enable the piece to be made. It happens, however, that a cube and a cylinder are the only two figures upon which all the dimensions can be marked on one view of the piece, and as cylindrical pieces are much more common in machine work than cubes are, it is taken for granted that, where the pieces are cylindrical, but one view shall be used, and that where they are cubes either two views shall be given, or where they are square a cross shall be marked upon the parts that are square; thus, in Figure 122, is shown a cross formed by the lines A B across the face of the drawing, which saves making a second view.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 120.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 121.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 122.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 123.]

It would appear that under some conditions this might lead to error; as, for example, take the piece in Figure 123, and there is nothing to denote which is the length and which is the diameter of the piece, but there is a certain amount of custom in such cases than will usually determine this point; thus, the piece will be given a name, as pin or disk, the one denoting that its diameter is less than its length, and the other that its diameter is greater than its length. In the absence of any such name, it would be in practice a.s.sumed that it was a pin and not a disk; because, if it were a disk, it would either be named or shaded, or a second view given to show its unusual form, the disk being a more unusual form than the pin-form in mechanical structures. As an example of the use of the cross to denote a square, we have Figure 124, which represents a piece having a hexagon head, section _a_, _a'_, that is rectangular, a collar _b_, a square part _c_, and a round stem _d_.

Here it will be noted that it is the rectangular part _a_, _a'_, that renders necessary two views, and that in the absence of the cross, yet another view would be necessary to show that part _c_ is square.