(e) The supply of water for bathing and washing, and the maintenance of a pure supply for drinking.

=1242. Camp expedients.= "Camp-expedients" is the name given the mechanical means used to put into effect some of the measures, named above, connected with camp sanitation, and usually consist of latrines, kitchen sinks, urinal tubs, rock or earth incinerators, and drainage ditches.

=1243. Latrines.= The latrines must be dug immediately upon reaching camp--their construction must not be delayed until the camps have been pitched and other duties performed. The exact location of the latrines should be determined by the commanding officer, or by some officer designated by him, the following considerations being observed:

1. They should be so located as not to contaminate the water supply.

2. They should not be placed where they can be flooded by rain water from higher ground, nor should they be so placed that they can pollute the camp by overflow in case of heavy rains.

3. They should be as far from the tents as is compatible with convenience--if too near, they will be a source of annoyance; if too far, some men, especially at night, and particularly if affected with diarrhoea, will defecate before reaching the latrine. Under ordinary circ.u.mstances, a distance of about 50 yards is considered sufficient.

Latrines for the men are always located on the opposite side of the camp from the kitchens, generally one for each company unit and one for the officers of a battalion or squadron. They are so placed that the drainage or overflow can not pollute the water supply or camp grounds.

When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches suffice. In camp of longer duration, and when it is not possible to provide latrine boxes, as for permanent camps, deeper trenches should be dug.

These may be used as straddle trenches or a seat improvised. When open trenches are used the excrement must be kept covered at all times with a layer of earth. In more permanent camps the trenches should be 2 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 15 feet long, and suitably screened. Seats with lids are provided and covered to the ground to keep flies from reaching the deposits; urinal troughs discharging into trenches are provided. Each day the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned, outside by scrubbing and inside by applying, when necessary, a coat of oil or whitewash. The pit is burned out daily with approximately 1 gallon oil and 15 pounds straw. When filled to within 2 feet of the surface, such latrines are discarded, filled with earth, and their position marked.

All latrines and kitchen pits are filled in before the march is resumed. In permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be placed in the company streets at night and emptied after reveille.

All latrines must be filled before marching. The following ill.u.s.tration shows a very simple and excellent latrine seat which can be made and kept in the company permanently for use in camps on the march:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1]

Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, should discharge into the trenches.

=1244. Urinal tubs.= When obtainable, urinal tubs or cans should be placed in the company streets at night, their location being indicated by lighted lanterns, the tubs or cans being removed at reveille.

=1245. Kitchens.= Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting of a green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the same character. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug under the pole, not only protects the fire from the wind but saves fuel.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2]

A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a similar trench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower than the diameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the trench and the s.p.a.ce between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, etc., leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can be improved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc., at the leeward end of the flue.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3]

Four such trenches radiating from a common central chimney will give one flue for use whatever may be the direction of the wind.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4]

A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney down, provides for drainage and improves the draft.

The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed of stone and covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no stone is available, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on its side, covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and then with a layer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed with the clay above the closed end of the barrel, which is then burned out with a hot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering for the oven.

A recess can be similarly constructed with boards or even brushwood, supported on a horizontal pole resting on upright posts, covered and burnt out as in the case of the barrel.

When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein and used at once.

To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then close flues and ends.

Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities must be provided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of the men.

Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept scrupulously clean.

Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen fire or in an improvised crematory.

In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from the kitchens may be strained through gunny sacking into seepage pits dug near the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. Boards or poles, covered with brush or gra.s.s and a layer of earth may be used for this purpose. The strainers should also be protected from flies.

Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not operate successfully.

All pits should be filled with earth before marching.

As a precautionary measure against setting the camp on fire, all dry gra.s.s, underbrush, etc., in the immediate vicinity of the kitchen should be cut down.

In case of a fire in camp, underbrush, spades, shovels, blankets, etc., are used to beat it out.

Gunny sacks dipped in water are the best fire fighters.

Burning away dried gra.s.s and underbrush around exterior of camp is a great protection against fire from outside.

=1246. Kitchen pits.= Pits of convenient size should be constructed for the liquid refuse from the kitchens. Solid refuse should be burned either in the kitchen fire or at some designated place, depending upon whether the camp is of a temporary or permanent nature. Unless the camp be of a very temporary nature, the pits should be covered with boards or other material in order to exclude the flies.

All pits should be filled in with earth before breaking camp.

=1247. Incinerators.= The incineration pit shown in the following diagram, affords an excellent, simple and economical way of disposing of camp waste and offal, tin cans and dish-water included:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5]

=Description:=

The pit is about 4-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at one end and 2-1/2 at the other. It is partially filled with stones, the larger ones on the bottom and the smaller on the top. At one end of the pit the stones extend a little above the surface, and slope gradually toward the other end until the fire pit is reached ten inches below the surface of the trench. Over the fire pit, about five inches above the ground, is placed a crab or a piece of boiler iron, on which is boiled all the water for washing dishes, etc. The fire pit is only about one-half of the stone surface, as the radiated heat keeps the rest of the stones hot, causing all dish and slop water to evaporate quickly.

Any tin cans that may be thrown into the fire pit are removed after a short exposure to the heat and placed in a trench especially dug for the purpose.

The company incinerator shown below was used with great success by some of our troops at Texas City, Texas. The rocks should not be too large. The men should be instructed to drop all liquid on the sides of the incinerator and throw all solid matter on the fire--the liquids will thus be evaporated and the solids burned. Until the men learn how to use the incinerator properly, a noncommissioned officer should be detailed to supervise its use.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 6]

=1248. Drainage.= When camp is established for an indefinite period, drainage should be attended to at once. Each tent should have a shallow trench dug around it and the company and other streets ditched on both sides, all the trenches and ditches connecting with a ditch that carries the water from the camp. All surface drainage from higher ground should be intercepted and turned aside.

=1249. Avoiding old camp sites.= The occupation of old camp sites is dangerous, since these are often permeated by elements of disease which persist for considerable periods.

=1250. Changing camp sites.= Camp sites must be changed promptly when there is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic disease threatens. Also, a change of camp site is often desirable in order to secure a change of surroundings and to abandon areas that have become dusty and cut up.

=1251. Bunks.= Place a number of small poles about seven feet long close together, the upper ends resting on a cross pole about six inches in diameter and the lower ends resting on the ground; or, the poles may be raised entirely off the ground by being placed on cross poles supported by forked stakes at the corners; on the poles place gra.s.s, leaves, etc.

=1252. Wood.= The firewood should be collected, cut and piled near the kitchen. Dry wood is usually found under logs or roots of trees.

If wagons are not heavily loaded it is sometimes a good plan to bring a few sticks of dry wood from the preceding camp, or to pick up good wood en route.

=1253. Water.= Precautionary measures should always be taken to prevent the contamination of the water, and a guard from the first troops reaching camp should at once be placed over the water supply.

If the water is obtained from a stream, places should be designated as follows for getting water:

(1) For drinking and cooking; (2) For watering animals; (3) For bathing and for washing clothing.