Planting holes are thus dug in the furrow with the stakes as a center.

Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best method of locating vines accurately in a vineyard. The measuring wire varies according to the wishes of the user from two to three hundred feet or may be even longer. The best wires are made of annealed steel wire about an eighth of an inch in diameter. At each end of the wire is a strong iron ring to be slipped over stakes. The wire is marked throughout its length by patches of solder at the distances desired between rows of vines; to make these places more easily seen, pieces of red cloth are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is made of several strands of small wire, giving more flexibility and making marking easier, since by separating the strands at the desired points, pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances.

In using the wire, the side of the vineyard which is to serve as the base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched, leaving at least one rod from road or fence for a headland. With the wire thus stretched, a stake is placed at each of the distance tags to represent the first row of vines. Beginning at the starting point, sixty feet are measured off in the base line and a temporary stake is set; eighty feet at a right angle with the first line are then measured off at the corner stake, judging the angle with the eye; then run diagonally from the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance between the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a right angle. With the base lines thus started at right angles to each other, one can measure off with the measuring wire as large an area as he desires by taking care to have the line each time drawn parallel with the last, and the stakes accurately placed at the marking points on the wire.

Still another method which may be put to good use in laying out a vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine measure and sight. The distances about the vineyard are measured and stakes set to mark the ends of the rows around the area. Good stakes can be made from laths pointed at one end and whitewashed at the other. A line of stakes is then set across the field each way through the center, in places, of course, which the two central rows of vines will fill. When these are in place, if the area is not too large or too hilly, all measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to sight by in each row and a second man should drive stakes as directed by the sighter. Accurate work can be done by this method, but it requires time, a good eye and much patience in the man who is sighting.

SELECTING AND PREPARING THE VINES

Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous and not easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought from a distance without fear of loss. The local nurseryman is, however, a good adviser as to varieties if he is honest and intelligent, and, other things equal, he should be patronized. But if the grower's needs cannot be met at home, he should not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a distance. This is more necessary with the grape than other fruits because young grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities only. With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to buy from the grower than from tree peddlers.

_Selecting vines._

Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is gambling pure and simple. Fortunately, there are several marks of good vines very helpful to those who know them. One should first make sure that the roots and tops are alive to the remotest parts. The vines should have a good clean, healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to indicate vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size is not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abundance of roots.

Vines with internodes of medium length for the variety are better than those with great length or very short internodes. Such precautions as are possible should be taken to insure varieties true to name, although here the reputation of the nurseryman must be depended on except for the few varieties which may be known at sight in the nursery.

First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-year-olds.

Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-old vines are often stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-growing varieties gain in vigor if allowed to remain in the nursery two years--three years, never.

_Handling and preparing the vines._

The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in the field, the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines make the vigorous start on which so much depends. The nurseryman should be requested not to prune much before packing and to pack the vines well for shipping.

The vines should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination.

If the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well before heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are shriveled and shrunken from excessive drying, in which case the plants often may be brought back to plumpness by burying them root and branch in damp earth, to remain a week or possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should be double furrowed in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the trench two or three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and half the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is firmed. The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks if need arises.

The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all dead or injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots. Grape roots can be cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the removal of small roots and fibers doing no harm, since fibers are of value only as indicating that the vine is strong and vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from stout, healthy roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die, and laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy vines, the stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to eight inches in length. The root system having been considerably pruned, the reciprocity between roots and tops must be taken into account and the top pruned accordingly. To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize with the activities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single cane and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready for planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should proceed apace.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE VI.--Black Hamburg (1/2).]

PLANTING

The dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants are greatly exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed with his responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up call to experiment station or nurseryman to "send him a man to plant." If the land is properly prepared and the plants in good condition, the operation of planting is easily, quickly and safely accomplished.

There is no need, in planting the vine, of such puttering overniceties as laying out the roots to preserve the fibers, watering each vine as it is set, inserting the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that it stands in its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the roots in pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crowbar in place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and burying the roots deep in the earth or covering them close to the surface is courting failure.

_Digging the holes._

This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need only be large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue cramping. Herein is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly preparing the land; for, in well-prepared land, the hole is really as large as the vineyard.

Even in the condition of poor tilth, deep holes are often a menace to the life of the plant, especially if drainage is not provided, for the deep hole becomes a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the roots of dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the place of perfect fitting of the land.

There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes in a leisure time that all may be ready when the time to plant arrives. The vines will strike root best in the freshly turned, moist soil of newly dug earth, which can be firmly set about the roots when the vine is planted. Neither is time saved in digging beforehand, for the sun-baked and rain-washed sides of holes long dug would surely have to be pared afresh. It is, however, quite worth while to throw the surface soil to one side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful of moist, virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots.

There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be blasted out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil with the hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath. It is very questionable, however, whether these defective soils should be used for commercial plantings as long as there still remain unplanted many acres in all grape regions of good deep land for the grape. To such as are attracted by "dynamite farming," minute descriptions of methods of use of dynamite and even demonstrations may be secured from manufacturers of the explosive.

_Time to plant._

The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring, when sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants, and nutritive solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their preappointed places.

At this time, the much mutilated vine can undertake best the double task of making fresh roots and opening the dormant leaves. Fall planting puts forward the work, thus diminishing the rush of early spring when vineyard operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is favorable, enables the vines to start a little more quickly. However, there are frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine from its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil. There is, also, great liability of winter-killing in vines transplanted in the autumn, not because of greater tenderness of the plant, but because of greater porosity of the loosened soil which enables the cold to strike to a greater depth. These two objections to fall planting can be overcome largely by mounding up the earth so as practically to cover the vines, leveling the mound in early spring; but this extra work more than offsets the labor saving in fall planting.

In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter, the vines may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often, however, conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm climates, since autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that it cannot be placed properly about the roots; and, moreover, in a cold, water-logged soil the inactive roots begin to decay; or the soil may be too dry for fall planting. Under such conditions, it is often better to delay planting in warm climates until spring when better soil conditions can be secured. Fall or spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and mellow when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily vary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly when to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions of soil and weather, mindful that the Psalmist's injunction that there is "a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" is subject to several conditions requiring judgment. The grape puts out its leaves late in the spring, making the temptation great to delay planting; late-set plants, however, need special care lest they suffer from the summer droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent.

_The operation of planting._

All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang of four men work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds the vines and tramps the earth as the remaining man shovels in earth. Except in large vineyards, four men are seldom available, and gangs of two or three must divide the work among its members as best suits conditions. A tree-setting board is not needed in planting grapes, although some growers use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps as the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is removed and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole. The stake, a lath, is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a support for the growing vine and to mark it so that the cultivator does not pull up the young plant. The soil must be set firm about the roots of the plant, but zeal in tramping should diminish as the hole is filled, leaving the topsoil untramped, smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust mulch--the best of all mulches--to prevent evaporation.

The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of controversy.

This should be governed by the soil more than by any other factor, although some varieties need a deeper root-run than others. The rule to plant to the depth the vine stood in the nursery row is safe under most conditions, although in light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots should go deeper; and, on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep.

Deep planting is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for roots under most conditions stand exposure better than internment, going down being more natural than coming up for a root seeking a place to its liking.

Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is parched with drought or in regions in which irrigation is practiced. When necessary, water should be used liberally, at least a gallon or two to a vine. After the earth has been firmed about the roots and the hole is nearly filled, the water should be poured in and the hole filled without more firming. Under dry weather conditions, some prefer to puddle the roots; that is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the mud adhering. In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is used, as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling, as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft without traces of the puddling below.

Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are not necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched at all at planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the surface to be cultivated in or to have its food elements leak down as rains fall. In land in which the providential design for grapes is plainly manifested, the vine at no time responds heartily to fertilizers, the good of stable manure probably coming for the most part from its effects on the texture and water-holding capacity of the soil. The newly set plant is not in need of outside nourishment; to put rank manure or strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young newly set vine is plant infanticide.

CARE OF YOUNG VINES

Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the setting and the first vintage, the "tender nonage," and tells us that at this time the vines need careful rearing; so they do, now as then, American grapes as well as the grapes of ancient Rome. Fortunately, any departure from normal well-being is easily told in the grape, for the color of the leaf is as accurate an index to the health and vigor of the vine as the color of the tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A change of color from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage, especially the yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not functioning properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing in some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than in the growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the use of the knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives by the knife the first two years out.

_The first year._

The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these operations need no attention in the first summer. Many varieties send up several shoots as growth starts, and, except in the case of grafted plants and in the event of the suckers coming from the stock, these should be left to feed the vine and help to establish a good root system. Vines making a strong growth should be tied to the stake, at least the strongest shoot, to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep the plants out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying is to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving the breaking of tying material.

The first year's pruning, though severe, is easily done. All but the strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to two buds, nearly to the ground, so that the vines are much as when set in the vineyard.

This pruning, and that of the next two years, has as the object the establishment of a good root system and the production of a st.u.r.dy trunk at the height at which the vine is to be headed. It is important that the cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall, though most growers give preference to late winter. In cold climates it is a good practice to plow up to the young vines for winter protection, in which case the pruning should be done before plowing.

Every detail of vineyard management should be performed with care and at the accepted time in this critical first year. Cultivation must be intensive, insects and fungi must be warded off, mechanical injuries avoided, vines that have refused to grow must be marked for discard, and the vineyard be put down to a cover-crop in early August if it was not earlier planted to some hoed catch-crop.

_The second year._

Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting of trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not yet ready to train but the slender lath of the first season is not sufficient support, and the one wire on the future trellis saves the expense of staking. Tying requires some care and is usually done with string or bast. As the summer proceeds, suckers from the roots are removed and some growers thin the shoots on the young vine; some think it necessary also to top the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so keep the cane within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the points where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start from the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be kept in mind that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips of shoots should, therefore, be taken when small, the object being to direct the growth into those parts of the vine which are to become permanent.

Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the vigor of the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane over-tops the lower wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so that the cane may be tied to the wire; otherwise the vine should again be cut almost to the ground, leaving but three or four buds. If the cane be left, in addition to st.u.r.diness and maturity, it should be straight, for it is to become the trunk of the mature vine. The training of the young vine is now at an end, for the next season the vine must be started toward its permanent form, instructions for which are given in the chapter on pruning.

The summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially in the second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation continues, the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-crop follows cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will set some fruit in this second summer, but the crop should not be allowed to mature, the sooner removed the better, as fruiting at this stage of growth seriously weakens the young vines.

CATCH-CROPS AND COVER-CROPS

A catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop for profit from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary crop grown, as the term was first used, to protect the soil, but the word is now used to include green-manuring crops as well. Catch-crops seldom have a place in most vineyards, but cover-crops are often grown.

_Catch-crops._

Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial vineyards; they may bring temporary profit but in the long run they are usually detrimental to the vines. It may pay and the grape may not be injured in some localities, if such truck crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes and cabbage are grown between the rows or even in the rows for the first year and possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops, however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must be of the best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the brambles, or even strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the vineyard is small, the land very valuable or other conditions prevail which make intensive culture possible or necessary. The objections to catch-crops in the vineyard are two: they rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger them to injury from tools in caring for the catch-crop.

Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the vineyard.

That is, twice the number of vines required in a row for the permanent vineyard are set with the expectation of cutting out alternate vines when two or three crops have been harvested and the vines begin to crowd. This practice is preferable to inter-planting with bush-fruits, yet there is not much to commend it if the experience of those who have tried it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left a year too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked in growth for several years following. The profits from the fillers are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if the permanent vines are stunted, the filler must be put down as a liability rather than as an a.s.set.

_Cover-crops._