_The callusing bed._

If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of them fail.

They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed where moisture and temperature can be controlled. Bioletti describes a callusing bed and its use as follows:[6]

"This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a board part.i.tion where there is no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the temperature to be controlled by the admission or exclusion of the sun's rays. A water-proof wagon-cover, black on one side and white on the other, is excellent for this purpose.

"The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion. Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed is full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is placed over all.

"In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and perfect the union of stock and scion as much as possible while delaying the starting of the buds and the emission of the roots. The latter processes require more moisture than the formation of healing tissue, therefore the sand should be kept comparatively dry. Between 5 and 10 per cent of water in the sand is sufficient. The purer the sand the less water is necessary. There should be a little more moisture present than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter.

Too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding the callus formation.

"All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the cuttings are kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep the sand cool, and to hasten them we make it warm. In the beginning of the season and up to the middle of March we keep the sand cool. This is done by keeping the bed covered during the day when the sun is shining, and uncovering occasionally at night when there is no fear of rain. If the black-and-white wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed outward to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about 60 F. or lower.

"About the middle of March the temperature of the bed should be raised. This is done by removing the cover during warm days and carefully covering at night. If necessary the layer of moss or straw should be removed on sunny days and then replaced. The temperature of the sand at the level of the unions should be about 75 F. during this period. If the temperature rises higher than this, there will be a more abundant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily injured, and liable to decay.

"At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union should be well cemented. The callus should not only have formed copiously around the whole circ.u.mference of the wound, but it should have acquired a certain amount of toughness due to the formation of fibrous tissue. It should require a pull of several pounds to break the callus and separate stock and scion. When the callus has acquired this quality the grafts are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the callus is still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts will fail, or unite only on one side.

"If left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion buds will have started and formed white shoots. These shoots, however, should not be more than 1/2 to 1 inch long. If they are longer the bed has been kept too wet or too warm. Roots will also have started from the stock, but these also should not be over 1/2 inch long. The grafts should be handled as carefully as is practicable, but there is no objection to breaking off any scion shoots or stock roots which have grown too long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly satisfactory growth."

_Care in the nursery._

The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much the same care recommended for cuttings. They may be set in trenches made with plow or spade; or they may be planted in very shallow trenches with a dibble. After planting, the grafts are covered with an inch or two of soil, thus forming a wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of the grafts at the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin at once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a crust, in order that the young shoots may not have difficulty in forcing their way through the soil. Roots start on the cions sooner than on the stock, the soil being warmer at the surface, and help sustain the cions until the stocks are well rooted, at which time all roots started on the cion are removed, and at the same time the tying material is cut if it has not rotted. Suckers are removed as soon as they show above ground. The grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall and the young vines become dormant, after which they are sorted in three lots, according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool moist place until they are to be planted.

_Nursery_ versus _home-grown vines._

The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them. The high quality of the vines which can be purchased and the reasonable purchase price make it hardly worth while to try home-grown vines, especially since considerable investment, experience and skill are required to grow good vines.

"PEDIGREED" GRAPE VINES

Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe that their plants should be propagated only from parents which have good characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy, productive, and bear fruit of large size, perfect form, good color and good quality. They believe, in short, that varieties can be improved by bud selection.

There is, however, but little in either theory or fact to substantiate the belief of those who say that varieties once established can be improved; or, on the other hand, that they degenerate. Present knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is all but complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The mult.i.tude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are morphologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to Christ's time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with the descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years ago. How, then, can the differences between vines of a variety in every vineyard in the land be explained?

Ample explanation is found in "nurture" to account for the variation in vines without involving a change in "Nature." Soil, sunlight, moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the stock in the case of grafted vines, give every vine a distinct environment and hence a distinct individuality of its own. Peculiarities in a vine appear and disappear with the individual. A variety can be changed temporarily by its environment, but remove the incidental forces and it snaps back into its same old self.

Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however; for, now and then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent and, if sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent variety or possibly a new variety. There are several such sports of the Concord under cultivation. The grape-grower can tell these sports from the modifications brought about by environment only by propagation. If a variation is transmitted unchanged through successive generations of the grape, as occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form.

"Pedigreed" vines, then, should be subject to a test of several generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-grower pays the price demanded for the supposed improvement.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE IV.--A well-tilled vineyard of Concords.]

CHAPTER IV

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES

Phylloxera, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in France in 1861 and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled in the insect world. By 1874, the pest had become so widespread in Europe that it threatened the very existence of the great vineyard industry of that continent.

All attempts to bring the pest under control failed, although the French government offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a satisfactory remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was efficacious.

Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that phylloxera is not a scourge in America, its habitat, and that European vineyards might be saved by grafting Vinifera vines on the roots of immune American grapes. At once the reconstruction of vineyards in Europe was begun by grafting the grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile, consternation spread to California when it was discovered that phylloxera was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific slope; however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune roots, without the same success as the Europeans, it is true, but with such measure of success that it soon became the approved method of growing grapes in this great region.

Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied in Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually struck at home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are grown, to be top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera. Seldom has mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to triumph over the tiny insect, the industry has had to be revolutionized. Resistant stocks, in their turn, brought innumerable new problems, many of which are still unsolved. Investigations and experiences in rehabilitating vineyards have been carried on for forty years, the results set forth in books and bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved.

The grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always under the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstration of practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices are best studied in the experiments of state experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture, and in the vineyards of leading grape-growers, since even those most needing elucidation can be but briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.

The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are hence exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant stocks were vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the results were very unsatisfactory; for, naturally, there was divergence in many characters and especially in the vigor of the vines. Also, there was difficulty in grafting, since some wild vines are stout and others slender; some bear grafts well, while others do not. It soon became apparent that to succeed, varieties must be selected from the different species for vineyard work. The great task of the experimenter and grape-grower, therefore, has been to select varieties of the several species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise possessed of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as best for the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several distinct regions in which these grapes are grown.

_Resistant species and varieties._

The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the use of resistant stocks is possible only because some species and varieties are, as has been said, more resistant to the root-louse than others.

All degrees of resistance exist, as would be suspected, from immunity to great susceptibility. It is obvious that the foundation of the art of growing resistant vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities and susceptibilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From the first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set themselves at work to determine not only what the most resistant vines are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity. In spite of a wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes can best resist the root-louse, causes and most of the conditions of immunity are still little understood. Definite, useful knowledge, so far, goes little further than the establishment of lists of species and varieties, the latter subject to change, that are most useful in setting resistant vineyards.

Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to the same general region in which the pest has its habitat, but nevertheless there are some differences in resistance in American grapes. Munson, one of the best American authorities on the resistance of species to phylloxera, says:[7] "Rotundifolia is entirely immune, then Rupestris, Vulpina, Cinerea, Berlandieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana, aestivalis and Lincec.u.mii are so high in resistance as to be practically uninjured, though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is low in resistance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and Vinifera is entirely non-resistant." Some of these species are hard to propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but two of them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most used are Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there are varieties which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading authority on resistant stocks in California, says:[8]

"Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia Rupestris 3306, Riparia Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvedre Rupestris 1202, Aramon Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent varieties for years in Europe, and have all been tested successfully in California. Among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays.

"The only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in California is the Rupestris St. George. There can be little doubt, however, that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils, and though we may not find something better for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience of Southern France and find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better results. Without attempting to describe these varieties, but to give some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to each, the following indications are given, based princ.i.p.ally on the opinions of L. Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited experience in California:

"The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long pruning.

"In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results in France and gives indications of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable.

"Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St.

George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot.

"There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their princ.i.p.al defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the cion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this variety than with any other Riparia.

"The Mourvedre Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient.

"The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and condition than perhaps any other varieties.

"Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow.

"In most other soils Riparia Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended, except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis Riparia 1616 is surer to give good results."

The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be judged somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the roots of the vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of the insects rapidly produce swellings which vary in size and number in accordance with resistance of the species. Technically, the first swelling on the young tender rootlets of the vine is called a nodosity. The presence of a few nodosities on the root system does not indicate that a vine is not a valuable resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay and becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when they rot deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus, on Vinifera varieties the tuberosities are several times larger and decay sets in much more quickly than on American species which show these tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of species are usually made from the size and number of the tuberosities, though when these are found producing a scab-like wound which scales off, there may be high resisting power.

In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power of resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed on by viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is indicated by 20 and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power of a good Vulpina is put as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera variety as 0.

ADAPTATIONS OF RESISTANT STOCKS TO SOILS AND CLIMATES

Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which comes from a species unsuited to the soil and climate or other circ.u.mstances of the locality in which the vineyard is to be planted. The several species used for stocks differ widely in the requirements affecting growth so that the grower must make certain that the resistant stock he selects will find congenial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circ.u.mstances are frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant, but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular conditions of the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their root systems, some having thick, others slender roots; the roots of some are soft, of others hard; some have roots going down deeply, others are almost at the surface of the ground. Manifestly these various root-forms are but adaptations to loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow soils, or to some circ.u.mstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity is in no condition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since the adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed by the stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates must have attention.

_Affinity of stock and cion._

Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same stocks, and different stocks may affect varieties differently. Even when the kinship is close, some grapes resist all the appliances of art to make a successful union; while, on the other hand, quite distinct species often seem foreordained to be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which has the highest resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as a stock because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera, the slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving oftentimes to increase fruitfulness. Something more is necessary, then, than botanical kinship. Just what is necessary, no one knows, beyond: that there must be conformity in habit between stock and cion; that the two must start in growth at approximately the same time; and that the tissues must be sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the union. Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the affinities and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show to each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but little to guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by making repeated trials.