On maps of very small pieces of ground, the V. I. is usually small--perhaps as small as 1 foot; on maps of large areas on a small scale it may be very great--even 1,000 feet.

Contours also show =slopes=. It has already been explained that from any contour to the next one above it the ground rises a fixed number of feet, according to the vertical interval of that map. From the scale of distances on the map the horizontal distance between any two contours can be found. For example: On the map the horizontal distance between D and E is 90 yards, or 270 feet. The vertical distance is 20 feet, the V. I. of the map. The slope then is 20/270 = 1/13.5 = 7-1/2% = 4-1/2, in all of which different ways the slope can be expressed.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Slope.]

On a good many contoured maps a figure like this will be found in one of the corners:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Scale.]

On that particular map contours separated by the distance

[Ill.u.s.tration: Scale.]

on the vertical scale show a slope of 1; if separated by the distance [Ill.u.s.tration:

__2__

] they show a 2 slope, etc. A slope of 1 is a rise of 1 foot in 57. To use this scale of slopes, copy it on the edge of a piece of paper just as you did the scale of distances and apply it directly to the map.

You will notice that where the contours lie closest the slope is steepest; where they are farthest apart, the ground is most nearly flat.

It has already been set forth how contours show height and slope; in addition to this they show the shape of the ground, or GROUND FORMS.

Each single contour shows the shape at its particular level of the hill or valley it outlines; for instance, the 880 contour about the penitentiary shows that the hill at that level has a shape somewhat like a horse's head. Similarly, every contour on the map gives us the form of the ground at its particular level, and knowing these ground forms for many levels we can form a fair conception of what the whole surface is like.

A round contour like the letter O outlines a round ground feature; a long, narrow one indicates a long, narrow ground feature.

Different hills and depressions have different shapes. A good many of them have one shape at one level and another shape at another level, all of which information will be given you by the contours on the map.

One of the ways to see how contours show the shape of the ground is to pour half a bucket of water into a small depression in the ground. The water's edge will be exactly level, and if the depression is approximately round the water's edge will also be approximately round.

The outline will look something like figure 6.

Draw roughly on a piece of paper a figure of the same shape and you will have a contour showing the shape of the bit of ground where you poured your water.

Next, with your heel gouge out on one edge of your little pond a small, round bay. The water will rush in and the watermark on the soil will now be shaped something like figure 7.

Alter your drawing accordingly, and the new contour will show the new ground shape.

Again do violence to the face of nature by digging with a stick a narrow inlet opening out of your miniature ocean, and the watermark will now look something like figure 8.

Alter your drawing once more and your contour shows again the hew ground form. Drop into your main pond a round clod and you will have a new watermark, like figure 9, to add to your drawing. This new contour, of the same level with the one showing the limit of the depression, shows on the drawing the round island.

Drop in a second clod, this time long and narrow, the watermark will be like figure 10, and the drawing of it, properly placed, will show another island of another shape. Your drawing now will look like figure 11.

It shows a depression approximately round, off which open a round bay and a long, narrow bay. There is also a round elevation and a long, narrow one; a long, narrow ridge, jutting out between the two bays, and a short, broad one across the neck of the round bay.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 6 to 11.]

Now flood your lake deeply enough to cover up the features you have introduced. The new water line, about as shown by the dotted line in figure 11, shows the oblong shape of the depression at a higher level; the solid lines show the shape farther down; the horizontal distance between the two contours at different points shows where the bank is steep and where the slope is gentler.

Put together the information each of these contours gives you, and you will see how contours show the shape of the ground. On the little map you have drawn you have introduced all the varieties of ground forms there are; therefore all contour forms.

The contours on an ordinary map seem much more complicated, but this is due only to the number of them, their length, and many turns before they finally close on themselves. Or they may close off the paper. But trace each one out, and it will resolve itself into one of the forms shown in figure 11.

Just as the high-tide line around the continents of North and South America runs a long and tortuous course, but finally closes back on itself, so will every contour do likewise. And just as truly as every bend in that high-tide mark turns out around a promontory, or in around a bay, so will every bend in a contour stand for a hill or a valley, pointing to the lowlands if it be a hill, and to the height if it mark a valley.

If the map embrace a whole continent or an island, all the contours will be of closed form, as in figure 11, but if it embrace only a part of the continent or island, some of the contours will be chopped off at the edge of the map, and we have the open form of contours, as we would have if figure 11 were cut into two parts.

The closed form may indicate a hill or a basin; the open form, a ridge or a valley; sometimes a casual glance does not indicate which.

Take up, first, the contour of the open type. If the map shows a stream running down the inside of the contour, there is no difficulty in saying at once that the ground feature is a valley; for instance, V, V, V, and the valley of Corral Creek on the map. But if there is no stream line, does the contour bend show a valley or a ridge?

First of all, there is a radical difference between the bend of a contour round the head of a valley and its bend round the nose of a ridge.

Compare on the map the valleys V and the ridges R. The bend of the contour round the head of the valley is much sharper than the bend of the contour round the nose of the ridge. This is a general truth, not only in regard to maps, but also in regard to ground forms. Study any piece of open ground and note how much wider are the ridges than the valleys. Where you find a "hog back" or "devil's backbone," you have an exception to the rule, but the exceptions are not frequent enough to worry over.

To tell whether a given point is on a ridge or in a valley, start from the nearest stream shown on the map and work across the map to the undetermined point, keeping in mind that in a real trip across the country you start from the stream, go up the hill to the top of a ridge, down the other side of the hill to a watercourse, then up a hill to the top of a ridge, down again, up again, etc. That is all traveling is--valley, hill, valley, hill, valley, etc., though you wander till the crack o' doom. And so your map travels must go--valley, hill, valley, hill--till you run off the map or come back to the starting point.

On the map, follow the R-V line, V indicating valley and R ridge or hill. Note first the difference in sharpness in the contour bends; also how the valley contours point to the highland and the ridge contours to the lowland.

The contours go thus:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Sketch Low / High land.]

The streams flow down the valleys, and the sharp angle of the contour points always _up_ stream. Note also how the junction of a stream and its tributary usually makes an angle that points _down_ stream.

"Which way does this stream run?"

Water flows down hill. If you are in the bed of a stream, contours representing higher ground must be to your right and to your left. Get the elevations of these contours. Generally the nearest contour to the bank of the stream will cross the stream, and there will be an angle or sharp turn in the contour at this crossing. If the point of the angle or sharp turn is toward you, you are going downstream; if away from you, you are going upstream.

If the contours are numbered, you have only to look at the numbers to say where the low and where the high places are; but to read a map with any speed one must be quite independent of these numbers. In ordinary map reading look, first of all, for the stream lines. The streams are the skeleton upon which the whole map is hung. Then pick out the hilltops and ridges, and you have a body to clothe with all the details that will be revealed by a close and careful study of what the map maker has recorded.

As to closed contours, they may outline a depression or a hill On the map "881" or "885" might be hills or ponds, as far as their shape is concerned. But, clearly, they are hills, for on either side are small streams running _away_ from them. If they were ponds, the stream lines would run _toward_ the closed contours. The test of "hill, valley, hill," will always solve the problem when there are not enough stream lines shown to make evident at once whether a closed contour marks a pond or a hill. Look in the beginning for the stream lines and valleys, and, by contrast, if for no other reason, the hills and ridges at once loom up.

To ill.u.s.trate the subject of contours to aid those who have difficulty in reading contoured maps the following is suggested:

1. Secure modeling clay and build a mound.

2. Use wire and slice this mound horizontally at equal vertical intervals into zones; then insert vertical dowels through the mound of clay.

3. Remove the top zone, place on paper, and draw outline of the bottom edge. Trim your paper roughly to the outline drawn. Indicate where the holes made by the dowels pierce the paper.

4. Do the above with each zone of your mound.

5. Place these papers in proper order on dowels similarly placed to ones in original mound at, say, 1 inch vertical interval apart. A skeleton mound results.

6. Replace the zones of the clay mound and form the original clay mound along the side of skeleton mound.

7. Now force all the paper sheets down the dowels onto the bottom sheet, and we have a map of clay mound with contours.

NOTE.--One-inch or 2-inch planks can be made into any desired form by the use of dowels and similar procedure followed.

People frequently ask, "What should I see when I read a map?" and the answer is given, "The ground as it is." This is not true any more than it is true that the words "The valley of the Meuse," bring to your mind vine-clad hills, a n.o.ble river, and green fields where cattle graze. Nor can any picture ever put into your thought what the Grand Canyon really is. What printed word or painted picture can not do, a map will not. A map says to you, "Here stands a hill," "Here is a valley," "This stream runs so," and gives you a good many facts in regard to them. But you do not have to "see" anything, any more than you have to visualize Liege in order to learn the facts of its geography. A map sets forth cold facts in an alphabet all its own, but an easy alphabet, and one that tells with a few curving lines more than many thousand words could tell.