The 170,000,000 bushels of oats raised in the United States in 1860, and fed to the 6,000,000 horses, the potatoes, the turnips, and the maize employed in fattening the oxen, the sheep, and the swine slaughtered the same year, occupied an extent of ground which, cultivated by hand labor and with Chinese industry and skill, would probably have produced a quant.i.ty of vegetable food equal in alimentary power to the flesh of the quadrupeds killed for domestic use. Hence, so far as the naked question of _amount_ of aliment is concerned, the meadows and the pastures might as well have remained in the forest condition.

[304] According to Clave (_etudes_, p. 159), the net revenue from the forests of the state in France, making no allowance for interest on the capital represented by the forest, is two dollars per acre. In Saxony it is about the same, though the cost of administration is twice as much as in France; in Wurtemberg it is about a dollar an acre; and in Prussia, where half the income is consumed in the expenses of administration, it sinks to less than half a dollar. This low rate in Prussia is partly explained by the fact that a considerable proportion of the annual product of wood is either conceded to persons claiming prescriptive rights, or sold, at a very small price, to the poor. Taking into account the capital invested in forest land, and adding interest upon it, Pressler calculates that a pine wood, managed with a view to felling it when eighty years old, would yield only one eighth of one per cent.

annual profit; a fir wood, at one hundred years, one sixth of one per cent.; a beech wood, at one hundred and twenty years, one fourth of one per cent. The same author (p. 335) gives the net income of the New forest in England, over and above expenses, interest not computed, at twenty-five cents per acre only. In America, where no expense is bestowed upon the woods, the annual growth would generally be estimated much higher.

[305] It is rare that a middle-aged American dies in the house where he was born, or an old man even in that which he has built; and this is scarcely less true of the rural districts, where every man owns his habitation, than of the city, where the majority live in hired houses.

This life of incessant flitting is unfavorable for the execution of permanent improvements of every sort, and especially of those which, like the forest, are slow in repaying any part of the capital expended in them. It requires a very generous spirit in a landholder to plant a wood on a farm he expects to sell, or which he knows will pa.s.s out of the hands of his descendants at his death. But the very fact of having begun a plantation would attach the proprietor more strongly to the soil for which he had made such a sacrifice; and the paternal acres would have a greater value in the eyes of a succeeding generation, if thus improved and beautified by the labors of those from whom they were inherited. Landed property, therefore, the transfer of which is happily free from every legal impediment or restriction in the United States, would find, in the feelings thus prompted, a moral check against a too frequent change of owners, and would tend to remain long enough in one proprietor or one family to admit of gradual improvements which would increase its value both to the possessor and to the state.

[306] It has been often a.s.serted by eminent writers that a part of the fens in Lincolnshire was reclaimed by sea dikes under the government of the Romans. I have found no ancient authority in support of this allegation, nor can I refer to any pa.s.sage in Roman literature in which sea dikes are expressly mentioned otherwise than as walls or piers, except that in Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ x.x.xvi, 24), where it is said that the Tyrrhenian sea was excluded from the Lucrine lake by dikes.

[307] A friend has recently suggested to me an interesting ill.u.s.tration of the applicability of military instrumentalities to pacific art. The sale of gunpowder in the United States, he informs me, is smaller since the commencement of the present rebellion than before, because the war has caused the suspension of many public and private improvements, in the execution of which great quant.i.ties of powder were used for blasting.

It is alleged that the same observation was made in France during the Crimean war, and that, in general, not ten per cent. of the powder manufactured on either side of the Atlantic is employed for military purposes.

It is a fact not creditable to the moral sense of modern civilization, that very many of the most important improvements in machinery and the working of metals have originated in the necessities of war, and that man's highest ingenuity has been shown, and many of his most remarkable triumphs over natural forces achieved, in the contrivance of engines for the destruction of his fellow man. The military material employed by the first Napoleon has become, in less than two generations, nearly as obsolete as the sling and stone of the shepherd, and attack and defence now begin at distances to which, half a century ago, military reconnoissances hardly extended. Upon a partial view of the subject, the human race seems destined to become its own executioner--on the one hand, exhausting the capacity of the earth to furnish sustenance to her taskmaster; on the other, compensating diminished production by inventing more efficient methods of exterminating the consumer.

But war develops great civil virtues, and brings into action a degree and kind of physical energy which seldom fails to awaken a new intellectual life in a people that achieves great moral and political results through great heroism and endurance and perseverance. Domestic corruption has destroyed more nations than foreign invasion, and a people is rarely conquered till it has deserved subjugation.

[308] STARING, _Voormaals en Thans_, p. 150.

[309] Idem, p. 163. Much the largest proportion of the lands so reclaimed, though for the most part lying above low-water tidemark, are at a lower level than the Lincolnshire fens, and more subject to inundation from the irruptions of the sea.

[310] _Die Inseln und Marschen der Herzogthumer Schleswig und Holstein_, iii, p. 151.

[311] The purely agricultural island of Pelworm, off the coast of Schleswig, containing about 10,000 acres, annually expends for the maintenance of its dikes not less than 6,000 sterling, or nearly $30,000.--J. G. KOHL, _Inseln und Marschen Schleswig's und Holstein's_, ii, p. 394.

The original cost of the dikes of Pelworm is not stated.

"The greatest part of the province of Zeeland is protected by dikes measuring 250 miles in length, the maintenance of which costs, in ordinary years, more than a million guilders [above $400,000]. * * * The annual expenditure for dikes and hydraulic works in Holland is from five to seven million guilders" [$2,000,000 to $2,800,000].--WILD, _Die Niederlande_, i, p. 62.

One is not sorry to learn that the Spanish tyranny in the Netherlands had some compensations. The great chain of ring dikes which surrounds a large part of Zeeland is due to the energy of Caspar de Robles, the Spanish governor of that province, who in 1570 ordered the construction of these works at the public expense, as a subst.i.tute for the private embankments which had previously partially served the same purpose.--WILD, _Die Niederlande_, i, p. 62.

[312] STARING, _Voormaals en Thans_, p. 163.

[313] _Voormaals en Thans_, pp. 150, 151.

[314] STARING, _Voormaals en Thans_, p. 152. Kohl states that the peninsula of Diksand on the coast of Holstein consisted, at the close of the last century, of several islands measuring together less than five thousand acres. In 1837 they had been connected with the mainland, and had nearly doubled in area.--_Inseln u. Marschen Schlesw. Holst._, iii, p. 262.

[315] The most instructive and entertaining of tourists, J. G. Kohl--so aptly characterized by Davies as the "Herodotus of modern Europe"--furnishes a great amount of interesting information on the dikes of the Low German seacoast, in his _Inseln und Marschen der Herzogthumer Schleswig und Holstein_. I am acquainted with no popular work on this subject which the reader can consult with greater profit.

See also STARING, _Voormaals en Thans_, and _De Bodem van Nederland_, on the dikes of the Netherlands.

[316] The inclination varies from one foot rise in four of base to one foot in fourteen.--KOHL, iii, p. 210.

[317] The dikes are sometimes founded upon piles, and sometimes protected by one or more rows of piles driven deeply down into the bed of the sea in front of them. "Triple rows of piles of Scandinavian pine," says Wild, "have been driven down along the coast of Friesland, where there are no dunes, for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles.

The piles are bound together by strong cross timbers and iron clamps, and the interstices filled with stones. The ground adjacent to the piling is secured with fascines, and at exposed points heavy blocks of stone are heaped up as an additional protection. The earth dike is built behind the mighty bulwark of this breakwater, and its foot also is fortified with stones." * * * "The great Helder dike is about five miles long and forty feet wide at the top, along which runs a good road. It slopes down two hundred feet into the sea, at an angle of forty degrees.

The highest waves do not reach the summit, the lowest always cover its base. At certain distances, immense b.u.t.tresses, of a height and width proportioned to those of the dike, and even more strongly built, run several hundred feet out into the rolling sea. This gigantic artificial coast is entirely composed of Norwegian granite."--WILD, _Die Niederlande_, i, pp. 61, 62.

[318] The shaking of the ground, even when loaded with large buildings, by the pa.s.sage of heavy carriages or artillery, or by the march of a body of cavalry or even infantry, shows that such causes may produce important mechanical effects on the condition of the soil. The bogs in the Netherlands, as in most other countries, contain large numbers of fallen trees, buried to a certain depth by earth and vegetable mould.

When the bogs are dry enough to serve as pastures, it is observed that trunks of these ancient trees rise of themselves to the surface. Staring ascribes this singular phenomenon to the agitation of the ground by the tread of cattle. "When roadbeds," observes he, "are constructed of gravel and pebbles of different sizes, and these latter are placed at the bottom without being broken and rolled hard together, they are soon brought to the top by the effect of travel on the road. Lying loosely, they undergo some motion from the pa.s.sage of every wagon wheel and the tread of every horse that pa.s.ses over them. This motion is an oscillation or partial rolling, and as one side of a pebble is raised, a little fine sand or earth is forced under it, and the frequent repet.i.tion of this process by cattle or carriages moving in opposite directions brings it at last to the surface. We may suppose that a similar effect is produced on the stems of trees in the bogs by the tread of animals."--_De Bodem van Nederland_, i, pp. 75, 76.

It is observed in the Northern United States, that when soils containing pebbles are cleared and cultivated, and the stones removed from the surface, new pebbles, and even bowlders of many pounds weight, continue to show themselves above the ground, every spring, for a long series of years. In clayey soils the fence posts are thrown up in a similar way, and it is not uncommon to see the lower rail of a fence thus gradually raised a foot or even two feet above the ground. This rising of stones and fences is popularly ascribed to the action of the severe frosts of that climate. The expansion of the ground, in freezing, it is said, raises its surface, and, with the surface, objects lying near or connected with it. When the soil thaws in the spring, it settles back again to its former level, while the pebbles and posts are prevented from sinking as low as before by loose earth which has fallen under them. The fact that the elevation spoken of is observed only in the spring, gives countenance to this theory, which is perhaps applicable also to the cases stated by Staring, and it is probable that the two causes above a.s.signed concur in producing the effect.

The question of the subsidence of the Netherlandish coast has been much discussed. Not to mention earlier geologists, Venema, in several essays, and particularly in _Het Dalen van de Noordelijke Kuststreken van ons Land_, 1854, adduces many facts and arguments to prove a slow sinking of the northern provinces of Holland. Laveleye (_Affaiss.e.m.e.nt du sol et envas.e.m.e.nt des fleuves survenus dans les temps historiques_, 1859), upon a still fuller investigation, arrives at the same conclusion. The eminent geologist Staring, however, who briefly refers to the subject in _De Bodem van Nederland_, i, p. 356 _et seqq._, does not consider the evidence sufficient to prove anything more than the sinking of the surface of the polders from drying and consolidation.

[319] The elevation of the lands enclosed by dikes--or _polders_, as they are called in Holland--above low water mark, depends upon the height of the tides, or, in other words, upon, the difference between ebb and flood. The tide cannot deposit earth higher than it flows, and after the ground is once enclosed, the decay of the vegetables grown upon it and the addition of manures do not compensate the depression occasioned by drying and consolidation. On the coast of Zeeland and the islands of South Holland, the tides, and of course the surface of the lands deposited by them, are so high that the polders can be drained by ditching and sluices, but at other points, as in the enclosed grounds of North Holland on the Zuiderzee, where the tide rises but three feet or even less, pumping is necessary from the beginning.--STARING, _Voormaals en Thans_, p. 152.

[320] The princ.i.p.al engine--called the Leeghwater, from the name of an engineer who had proposed the draining of the lake in 1641--was of 500 horse power, and drove eleven pumps making six strokes per minute. Each pump raised six cubic metres, or nearly eight cubic yards of water to the stroke, amounting in all to 23,760 cubic metres, or above 31,000 cubic yards, the hour.--WILD, _Die Niederlande_, i, p. 87.

[321] In England and New England, where the marshes have been already drained or are of comparatively small extent, the existence of large floating islands seems incredible, and has sometimes been treated as a fable, but no geographical fact is better established. Kohl (_Inseln und Marschen Schleswig-Holsteins_, iii, p. 309) reminds us that Pliny mentions among the wonders of Germany the floating islands, covered with trees, which met the Roman fleets at the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser. Our author speaks also of having visited, in the territory of Bremen, floating moors, bearing not only houses but whole villages. At low stages of the water these moors rest upon a bed of sand, but are raised from six to ten feet by the high water of spring, and remain afloat until, in the course of the summer, the water beneath is exhausted by evaporation and drainage, when they sink down upon the sand again. See _Appendix_, No. 40.

Staring explains, in an interesting way, the whole growth, formation, and functions of floating fens or bogs, in his very valuable work, _De Bodem van_ _Nederland_, i, pp. 36-43. The substance of his account is as follows: The first condition for the growth of the plants which compose the substance of turf and the surface of the fens, is stillness of the water. Hence they are not found in running streams, nor in pools so large as to be subject to frequent agitation by the wind. For example, not a single plant grew in the open part of the Lake of Haarlem, and fens cease to form in all pools as soon as, by the cutting of the turf for fuel or other purposes, their area is sufficiently enlarged to be much acted on by wind. When still water above a yard deep is left undisturbed, aquatic plants of various genera, such us Nuphar, Nymphaea, Limnanthemum, Stratiotes, Polygonum, and Potamogeton, fill the bottom with roots and cover the surface with leaves. Many of the plants die every year, and prepare at the bottom a soil fit for the growth of a higher order of vegetation, Phragmites, Acorus, Sparganium, Rumex, Lythrum, Pedicularis, Spiraea, Polystichum, Comarum, Caltha, &c., &c. In the course of twenty or thirty years the muddy bottom is filled with roots of aquatic and marsh plants, which are lighter than water, and if the depth is great enough to give room for detaching this vegetable network, a couple of yards for example, it rises to the surface, bearing with it, of course, the soil formed above it by decay of stems and leaves. New genera now appear upon the ma.s.s, such as Carex, Menyanthes, and others, and soon thickly cover it. The turf has now acquired a thickness of from two to four feet, and is called in Groningen _lad_; in Friesland, _til_, _tilland_, or _drijftil_; in Overijssel, _krag_; and in Holland, _rietzod_. It floats about as driven by the wind, gradually increasing in thickness by the decay of its annual crops of vegetation, and in about half a century reaches the bottom and becomes fixed. If it has not been invaded in the mean time by men or cattle, trees and arborescent plants, Alnus, Salix, Myrica, &c. appear, and these contribute to hasten the attachment of the turf to the bottom, both by their weight and by sending their roots quite through into the ground.

This is the regular method employed by nature for the gradual filling up of shallow lakes and pools, and converting them first into mora.s.s and then into dry land. Whenever therefore man removes the peat or turf, he exerts an injurious geographical agency, and, as I have already said, there is no doubt that the immense extension of the inland seas of Holland in modern times is owing to this and other human imprudences.

"Hundreds of hectares of floating pastures," says our author, "which have nothing in their appearance to distinguish them from gra.s.s lands resting on solid bog, are found in Overijssel, in North Holland and near Utrecht. In short, they occur in all deep bogs, and wherever deep water is left long undisturbed."

In one case, a floating island, which had attached itself to the sh.o.r.e, continued to float about for a long time after it was torn off by a flood, and was solid enough to keep a pond of fresh water upon it sweet, though the water in which it was swimming had become brackish from the irruption of the sea. After the hay is cut, cattle are pastured upon those islands, and they sometimes have large trees growing upon them.

When the turf or peat has been cut, leaving water less than a yard deep, Equisetum limosum grows at once, and is followed by the second cla.s.s of marsh plants mentioned above. Their roots do not become detached from the bottom in such shallow water, but form ordinary turf or peat. These processes are so rapid that a thickness of from three to six feet of turf is formed in half a century, and many men have lived to mow gra.s.s where they had fished in their boyhood, and to cut turf twice in the same spot.

Captain Gilliss says that before Lake Taguataga in Chili was drained, there were in it islands composed of dead plants matted together to a thickness of from four to six feet, and with trees of medium size growing upon them. These islands floated before the wind "with their trees and browsing cattle."--_United States Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere_, i, pp. 16, 17.

[322] A considerable work of this character is mentioned by Captain Gilliss as having been executed in Chili, a country to which we should have hardly looked for an improvement of such a nature. The Lake Taguataga was partially drained by cutting through a narrow ridge of land, not at the natural outlet, but upon one side of the lake, and eight thousand acres of land covered by it were gained for cultivation.--_U. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere_, i, pp. 16, 17.

[323] _economie Rurale de la France_, p. 289.

[324] In a note on a former page of this volume I noticed an observation of Jacini, to the effect that the great Italian lakes discharge themselves partly by infiltration beneath the hills which bound them.

The amount of such infiltration must depend much upon the hydrostatic pressure on the walls of the lake basins, and, of course, the lowering of the surface of these lakes, by diminishing that pressure, would diminish also the infiltration. It is now proposed to lower the level of the Lake of Como some feet by deepening its outlet. It is possible that the effect of this may manifest itself in a diminution of the water in springs and _fontanili_ or artesian wells in Lombardy. See _Appendix_, No. 43.

[325] Simonde, speaking of the Tuscan ca.n.a.ls, observes: "But inundations are not the only damage caused by the waters to the plains of Tuscany.

Raised, as the ca.n.a.ls are, above the soil, the water percolates through their banks, penetrates every obstruction, and, in spite of all the efforts of industry, sterilizes and turns to mora.s.ses fields which nature and the richness of the soil seemed to have designed for the most abundant harvests. In ground thus pervaded with moisture, or rendered _cold_, as the Tuscans express it, by the filtration of the ca.n.a.l water, the vines and the mulberries, after having for a few years yielded fruit of a saltish taste, rot and perish. The wheat decays in the ground, or dies as soon as it sprouts. Winter crops are given up, and summer cultivation tried for a time; but the increasing humidity, and the saline matter communicated to the earth--which affects the taste of all its products, even to the gra.s.ses, which the cattle refuse to touch--at last compel the husbandman to abandon his fields, and leave uncultivated a soil that no longer repays his labor."--_Tableau de l'Agriculture Toscane._ pp. 11, 12.

[326] _Physikalische Geographie_, p. 288. Draining by driving down stakes, mentioned in a note in a chapter on the woods, _ante_, is a process of the same nature.

[327] "The simplest backwoodsman knows by experience that all cultivation is impossible in the neighborhood of bogs and marshes. Why is a crop near the borders of a marsh cut off by frost, while a field upon a hillock, a few stone's throws from it, is spared?"--LARS LEVI LaeSTADIUS, _Om Uppodlingar i Lappmarken_, pp. 69, 74.

[328] Babinet condemns even the general draining of marshes. "Draining,"

says he, "has been much in fashion for some years. It has been a special object to dry and fertilize marshy grounds. My opinion has always been that excessive dryness is thus produced, and that other soils in the neighborhood are sterilized in proportion."

[329] I ought perhaps to except the Mexicans and the Peruvians, whose arts and inst.i.tutions are not yet shown to be historically connected with those of any more ancient people. The lamentable destruction of so many memorials of these tribes, by the ignorance and bigotry of the so-called Christian barbarians who conquered them, has left us much in the dark as to many points of their civilization; but they seem to have reached that stage where continued progress in knowledge and in power over nature is secure, and a few more centuries of independence might have brought them to originate for themselves most of the great inventions which the last four centuries have bestowed upon man.

[330] The necessity of irrigation in the great alluvial plain of Northern Italy is partly explained by the fact that the superficial stratum of fine earth and vegetable mould is very extensively underlaid by beds of pebbles and gravel brought down by mountain torrents at a remote epoch. The water of the surface soil drains rapidly down into these loose beds, and pa.s.ses off by subterranean channels to some unknown point of discharge; but this circ.u.mstance alone is not a sufficient solution. Is it not possible that the habits of vegetables, grown in countries where irrigation has been immemorially employed, have been so changed that they require water under conditions of soil and climate where their congeners, which have not been thus indulgently treated, do not?

There are some atmospheric phenomena in Northern Italy, which an American finds it hard to reconcile with what he has observed in the United States. To an American eye, for instance, the sky of Piedmont, Lombardy, and the northern coast of the Mediterranean, is always whitish and curdled, and it never has the intensity and fathomless depth of the blue of his native heavens. And yet the heat of the sun's rays, as measured by sensation, and, at the same time, the evaporation, are greater than they would be with the thermometer at the same point in America. I have frequently felt in Italy, with the mercury below 60 Fahrenheit, and with a mottled and almost opaque sky, a heat of solar irradiation which I can compare to nothing but the scorching sensation experienced in America at a temperature twenty degrees higher, during the intervals between showers, or before a rain, when the clear blue of the sky seems infinite in depth and transparency. Such circ.u.mstances may create a necessity for irrigation where it would otherwise be superfluous, if not absolutely injurious.

In speaking of the superior apparent clearness of the _sky_ in America, I confine myself to the concave vault of the heavens, and do not mean to a.s.sert that terrestrial objects are generally visible at greater distances in the United States than in Italy. Indeed I am rather disposed to maintain the contrary; for though I know that the lower strata of the atmosphere in Europe never equal in transparency the air near the earth in New Mexico, Peru, and Chili, yet I think the accidents of the coast line of the Riviera, as, for example, between Nice and La Spezia, and those of the incomparable Alpine panorama seen from Turin, are distinguishable at greater distances than they would be in the United States.

[331] In Egypt, evaporation and absorption by the earth are so rapid, that all annual crops require irrigation during the whole period of their growth. As fast as the water retires by the subsidence of the annual inundation, the seed is sown upon the still moist uncovered soil, and irrigation begins at once. Upon the Nile, you hear the creaking of the water wheels, and sometimes the movement of steam pumps, through the whole night, while the poorer cultivators unceasingly ply the simple _shadoof_, or bucket-and-sweep, laboriously raising the water from trough to trough by as many as six or seven stages when the river is low. The bucket is of flexible leather, with a stiff rim, and is emptied into the trough, not by inverting it like a wooden bucket, but by putting the hand beneath and pushing the bottom up till the water all runs out over the brim, or, in other words, by turning the vessel inside out.

The quant.i.ty of water thus withdrawn from the Nile is enormous. Most of this is evaporated directly from the surface or the superficial strata, but some moisture percolates down and oozes through the banks into the river again, while a larger quant.i.ty sinks till it joins the slow current of infiltration by which the Nile water pervades the earth of the valley to the distance, at some points, of not less than fifty miles.