Living our Language.

Ojibwe tales and oral histories.

edited by Anton Treuer.

INTRODUCTION.

We're Not Losing Our Language

"We're not losing our language, our language is losing us," says White Earth elder Joe Auginaush. I have been both haunted and driven by that thought for many years now. The current peril faced by the Ojibwe (Chippewa) language is a matter of a declining number of speakers and a people who have lost their way, rather than a language that is lost or dying. The Ojibwe language, spoken by as many as 60,000 Anishinaabe people in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, is alive.1 The grammar, syntax, and structure of the language are complete. The oral tradition and history of the Ojibwe are still with us. Yet in many areas fluency rates have plummeted to unprecedented and unsustainable levels. Especially in the United States, most speakers are more than forty-five years of age. The grammar, syntax, and structure of the language are complete. The oral tradition and history of the Ojibwe are still with us. Yet in many areas fluency rates have plummeted to unprecedented and unsustainable levels. Especially in the United States, most speakers are more than forty-five years of age.2 In some places, the fluency rate is as low as one percent. In some places, the fluency rate is as low as one percent.3 As the population of fluent speakers ages and eventually leaves, there is no doubt that the Ojibwe language will lose its carriers. We are not losing our language. Our language is losing us. As the population of fluent speakers ages and eventually leaves, there is no doubt that the Ojibwe language will lose its carriers. We are not losing our language. Our language is losing us.

A battle now rages to keep Ojibwe alive. At stake is the future of not only the language, but the knowledge contained within the language, the unique Ojibwe worldview and way of thinking, the Anishinaabe connection to the past, to the earth, and to the future. In recent years, educational initiatives have been implemented at every level of the curriculum. Elders, such as those whose stories are collected in this book, have made extra efforts to teach and to be heard. Young Anishinaabe people have been making extra efforts to listen and to learn. It is the hope and prayer of all those involved in creating this book that these recent efforts will not be too little, too late. "We are not losing our language" is a statement of fact. "We are not losing our language" is a battle cry. "We are not losing our language" is a promise to all who care about the Ojibwe language, a promise that it will not die. Culture and language are inextricably linked, and all of the stories in this volume echo this belief in one way or another. It is my hope that this collection of bilingual Ojibwe stories can help to turn the tide of that battle as well as educate readers about Ojibwe history, culture, and humor.

Over the past several years, I recorded numerous Ojibwe elders from my home community of Leech Lake and the neighboring reservations of White Earth, Red Lake, and Mille Lacs. I also came under the cultural tutelage of Archie Mosay, an elder from the St. Croix Reservation of Wisconsin, and recorded some of his stories as well. I never recorded any sacred legends, which are strictly taught through oral instruction only. However, the narrations of childhood memories and Ojibwe lifeways tell a great deal about how Ojibwe people lived, thought, and persevered during the tumultuous twentieth century.

This anthology is rich and varied. Not only do the a.s.sorted speakers have different ways of speaking Ojibwe, they also have very different experiences and philosophies about anishinaabe-izhichigewin anishinaabe-izhichigewin-the Indian culture-and anishinaabemowin anishinaabemowin-the Ojibwe language. The stories are vividly detailed, and often the speakers paint a verbal canvas of Ojibwe living: maple sugar camps, ricing, spearing fish, and religious ceremonies. A picture of early-twentieth-century life comes alive in the tellings of these gifted orators-whether it is Susan Jackson's explanations of rabbit snaring at Inger on the Leech Lake Reservation or Archie Mosay's description of the tall pine forests of the 1910s, where lack of undergrowth left a silent carpet upon which he could approach white-tailed deer. The history revealed in these stories is of great importance as well, and historical narrations about everything from Ojibwe-Dakota warfare to boarding schools and military experience during the Second World War abound. Indeed, when Porky White remembers his namesake, a Civil War veteran, it becomes strikingly clear just how much has changed in a very short time for the Ojibwe.

The serious narratives about culture and history are great fun to read, as they are interwoven with a thread of humor. Examples of comic recollections include the image of Archie Mosay, a full-grown man and father, fearfully running off the footpath and hiding in the brush the first time he saw an automobile, as well as his stories about the first time he saw a black man and the devilish tricks he played on people while hunting. Other speakers describe their misbehavior as children with enthusiasm and detail, whether is it Emma Fisher siccing her dogs on her uncle or Porky White explaining that he was nicknamed "Porky" because he followed around an elder man who looked like a porcupine. And, at times, the stories presented have the sole purpose of entertainment, whether it is Scott Headbird telling about two Red Lake Indians who got a mouse inebriated or Joe Auginaush describing Wenabozho playing baseball at Rice Lake. The narrations contain a breadth of character and detail that covers every experience, from the fun and folly of youth to the wisdom and deep-thinking philosophy of old age.

The Ojibwe of Minnesota.

From their original homelands on the Atlantic Coast of the United States, the Ojibwe and other Algonquian tribes had been migrating westward for centuries before European contact. The spiritual and economic rationales for this radical change in demographics are still well doc.u.mented in the oral tradition of the Ojibwe people.4 By the time French explorers first penetrated the central Great Lakes in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Ojibwe had already established numerous villages west of Sault Ste. Marie. By the time French explorers first penetrated the central Great Lakes in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Ojibwe had already established numerous villages west of Sault Ste. Marie.

The fur trade was to change Ojibwe life forever. As Dutch and then British empires sparred with the French for control of the beaver trade and first rights to colonization, their actions sparked both declines in the populations of fur-bearing animals due to over-trapping and the Iroquois Wars that dominated the latter half of the seventeenth century.5 The French-supported Ojibwe and their allies, the Ottawa and the Potowatomi, eventually emerged victorious in their conflict with the British-allied Iroquois Confederacy. However, European diseases, particularly smallpox, had a devastating effect on native populations in the Great Lakes during this period, claiming over ninety percent of the Indian lives in some villages. The French-supported Ojibwe and their allies, the Ottawa and the Potowatomi, eventually emerged victorious in their conflict with the British-allied Iroquois Confederacy. However, European diseases, particularly smallpox, had a devastating effect on native populations in the Great Lakes during this period, claiming over ninety percent of the Indian lives in some villages.

The Ojibwe did rebound from the debilitating effects of the Iroquois Wars and European diseases, and, contrary to conventional thought, they expanded their territorial domain and population over the next one hundred years. The Ojibwe displaced many of their western Indian neighbors, the Dakota and the Nakota.6 However, the western Lakota had been expanding westward through this period as well, displacing other Indian groups on the plains. Standard models for studying Indian history do not adequately describe the process of Ojibwe and Lakota expansion in the eighteenth century. Both groups were being However, the western Lakota had been expanding westward through this period as well, displacing other Indian groups on the plains. Standard models for studying Indian history do not adequately describe the process of Ojibwe and Lakota expansion in the eighteenth century. Both groups were being pulled pulled to the west far more than they were being to the west far more than they were being pushed pushed from the east. from the east.7 By 1800, the Ojibwe had exclusive control over the northern half of Minnesota. The Red Lake and Pembina Bands of Ojibwe continued to push on to the Great Plains over the next fifty years, eventually establishing new communities, with their new allies the Cree and the a.s.siniboin, at Turtle Mountain, North Dakota, and Rocky Boy, Montana. By 1800, the Ojibwe had exclusive control over the northern half of Minnesota. The Red Lake and Pembina Bands of Ojibwe continued to push on to the Great Plains over the next fifty years, eventually establishing new communities, with their new allies the Cree and the a.s.siniboin, at Turtle Mountain, North Dakota, and Rocky Boy, Montana.

Tensions between the Ojibwe and the Dakota in Minnesota eased some in the early nineteenth century. There were numerous battles, but the scale of the conflict had greatly diminished and significant territorial changes were now a thing of the past. Both groups had to contend with a new aggressor: the United States of America.

The Minnesota Ojibwe's eventual dispossession of their land was piecemeal, as treaties were negotiated in 1837, 1847, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1864, 1866, and 1867. After treaty-making in the United States came to a close, the Nelson Act of 1889 established the Red Lake Reservation, including large land cessions from Red Lake and White Earth. Additional land cessions were made at Red Lake in 1904.

The remaining Indian reservation landholdings in Minnesota came under a.s.sault through the policy of allotment, established by the General Allotment Act of 1887, also known as the Dawes Act. Two years later, the Nelson Act of 1889 implemented allotment for all Minnesota Ojibwe except for those at Red Lake.8 Allotment was utilized to break up reservations. Through this policy, tribal governments would no longer own land (except at Red Lake) and each individual Indian would receive a parcel in private ownership. In spite of a twenty-five-year trust period prohibiting the sale of Indian allotments, many allotments were illegally sold or stolen. Timber and land speculators preyed on Indian allottees, with devastating effects. Some reservations, such as White Earth, emerged with less than ten percent of their reservation in Indian hands. Government officials found ways to circ.u.mvent protections in the Dawes or Nelson Acts with riders to appropriation bills and amendments to the trust period for mixed blood and "competent" Indians. Allotment was utilized to break up reservations. Through this policy, tribal governments would no longer own land (except at Red Lake) and each individual Indian would receive a parcel in private ownership. In spite of a twenty-five-year trust period prohibiting the sale of Indian allotments, many allotments were illegally sold or stolen. Timber and land speculators preyed on Indian allottees, with devastating effects. Some reservations, such as White Earth, emerged with less than ten percent of their reservation in Indian hands. Government officials found ways to circ.u.mvent protections in the Dawes or Nelson Acts with riders to appropriation bills and amendments to the trust period for mixed blood and "competent" Indians.9 Allotment was not implemented at Mille Lacs until 1926 in order to encourage Indians there to relocate and take allotments at White Earth. By the time allotment was implemented at Mille Lacs, however, there were only 284 Ojibwe left and the remaining land base for allotment was very small. Allotment was not implemented at Mille Lacs until 1926 in order to encourage Indians there to relocate and take allotments at White Earth. By the time allotment was implemented at Mille Lacs, however, there were only 284 Ojibwe left and the remaining land base for allotment was very small.10 The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 opened the door to stronger tribal sovereignty for the Minnesota Ojibwe, as reservation governments organized and displaced the unwelcome Bureau of Indian Affairs, which had managed the day-to-day affairs on reservations. There were problems with the IRA, as it lumped together the previously separate Ojibwe communities of Sandy Lake, East Lake, Lake Lena, Isle, and Mille Lacs under the rubric of one reservation, leaving many Indians from the district of East Lake in particular feeling disempowered and not properly represented.11 The IRA also included in the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe all Ojibwe reservations except for Red Lake. This joint governing and funding authority increased communication between reservations and coordinated many programs but made const.i.tutional reforms and major changes in political structure nearly impossible, hampering efforts at const.i.tutional reform by Leech Lake and White Earth residents even today. The IRA also included in the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe all Ojibwe reservations except for Red Lake. This joint governing and funding authority increased communication between reservations and coordinated many programs but made const.i.tutional reforms and major changes in political structure nearly impossible, hampering efforts at const.i.tutional reform by Leech Lake and White Earth residents even today.

From the late nineteenth century until the close of World War II, numerous Ojibwe children were taken from their homes and sent to government boarding schools, where they were often beaten for speaking the Ojibwe language. The effects of this forced a.s.similation were particularly damaging to long-term language retention for Ojibwe communities, creating a permanent break in language instruction for many families. Those who regained the language after boarding school often did not teach the language to their children. As a result, most Minnesota Ojibwe communities today have fluency rates of ten percent or less, with the vast majority of speakers being forty-five or more years of age.12 In spite of the devastating effects of dispossession and a.s.similation policies, the Ojibwe still maintain a vibrant culture and a strong, unbroken religious tradition. The base of speakers was surely in decline, but the Big Drum Ceremonials and Medicine Dance have continued to be practiced. Today, those ceremonies are experiencing revitalization as numerous young Ojibwe people attempt to regain contact with ancient history and culture. In many ways Ojibwe tradition lives on, although fluency in Ojibwe is a requirement for anyone telling funeral legends or conducting a Medicine Dance. Ojibwe culture is intact, but it is affixed by very thin threads.

The waxing power of tribal governments and the upsurge of interest in traditional culture has sparked new hope for the language in recent years. Casinos provide a much-needed income stream for Ojibwe communities, and many tribes have put the money to good use, building Big Drum dance halls and funding language programs. Among these communities there is hope for a revitalization of Ojibwe language and culture. Without doubt, it is in the spirit of revitalization that the speakers represented here have chosen to share their knowledge.

The Journey:

From Meeting Speakers to Pursuing Publication.

When I first began recording Ojibwe speakers and transcribing their stories, I didn't think about publishing them. I simply wanted to preserve the language of some of my family members and community elders for myself. I was interested in working with people close to me who spoke the same dialect of Ojibwe. Thus, my first contacts were primarily Leech Lake elders-Scott Headbird, Emma Fisher, and Walter "Porky" White. A few years later, I also recorded Leech Lake elders Hartley White and Susan Jackson.

As I continued to collect language material, I came to understand more and more how precious that material was and how useful it would be for anyone interested in Ojibwe language and culture. Earl Otchingwanigan (formerly Nyholm) and Kent Smith, both of whom worked at Bemidji State University, encouraged me to a.s.sume the position of editor for the Oshkaabewis Native Journal Oshkaabewis Native Journal, an Ojibwe language publication produced by Bemidji State University Indian Studies. In speaking with the elders I had been recording, I decided that it wouldn't be fair for me to keep their stories to myself. Many of the elders recorded stories for the expressed purpose of sharing them with me and with anyone else who would listen. To further their goal, I began to publish some of those stories in monolingual Ojibwe transcription and, later, with English translation as well. As the journal's circulation grew, I began to record other Ojibwe elders, including several from communities with significantly different dialects. I eventually worked with people from all of the major Minnesotan Ojibwe dialects, including a number of people from the Red Lake community of Ponemah, Mille Lacs and communities along the St. Croix border region, and especially the late Archie Mosay of Balsam Lake, Wisconsin. I also visited with several elders from White Earth and established a good friendship with Joe Auginaush through those visits. There aren't enough speakers in this book to represent each Ojibwe community in Minnesota, but most dialects of Southwestern Ojibwe are well represented. The stories in this book are organized by speaker, with an introduction detailing the life and background of each teller preceding his or her stories.

From Oral Tradition to Written Text: Recording, Transcribing, and Translating.

Oral tradition is meant to be handed down through the spoken word. Maintaining strong oral traditions is a top priority for the survival of Ojibwe language and culture. This book is not intended to subst.i.tute written stories for oral tradition or spoken language. Rather, it is a tool that language students and teachers can use to augment their spoken instruction and recorded tapes. Textualizing the language is a necessary step to developing an Ojibwe language literature, allowing us both to preserve the language and to teach it. Furthermore, in producing books like this one, the contributing elders can reach Ojibwe people in urban areas and other communities they would not otherwise be able to reach. The written text before you is meant to a.s.sist in the preservation of spoken Ojibwe and the oral tradition. It never could nor should replace any part of the vocalized word or its usage.

Over the past several years, I have visited numerous Ojibwe elders from Minnesota and Wisconsin as a part of my efforts to learn more about Ojibwe language and culture, as well as for the simple joys of visiting. Eventually, I recorded some of those elders on ca.s.sette. Usually, we would sit at their kitchen tables, or sometimes in their living rooms. I only recorded elders when they were both willing to partic.i.p.ate and comfortable with the idea. Sometimes I recorded stories at language camps or other events, but for the most part recordings took place in the speakers' homes.

After recording the stories, I brought the tapes to my home near Ca.s.s Lake, Minnesota, and went to work transcribing them. Some of the transcriptions were completed while I was traveling or working in Milwaukee. It sometimes took me weeks to transcribe a story. When transcriptions were ready, I translated the stories. When there were words I didn't know or parts of the original recording I didn't fully understand, I noted the places for my next visit. When transcription and translation for a story or set of stories were complete, I would then visit the elder again and clarify any questions I had in transcription or translation. I then read stories back to the speakers for proofing. Although there were often minor changes, the written versions correspond very closely to those recorded on the ca.s.sette tapes.

Many of the stories collected here were published in the Oshkaabewis Native Journal Oshkaabewis Native Journal with the original ca.s.sette. with the original ca.s.sette. The Oshkaabewis Native Journal The Oshkaabewis Native Journal ( (ONJ) is the only academic journal of the Ojibwe language. It includes numerous stories and articles about linguistics and language acquisition. Many of the stories published in ONJ ONJ were also proofread by Earl Otchingwanigan. were also proofread by Earl Otchingwanigan.

I decided to present these stories in the double vowel orthography for a number of reasons. The double vowel system was developed in the early 1950s by C.E. Fiero and, over the past thirty years especially, has come to be the most frequently used system for writing Ojibwe in the United States. It is important to maintain orthographic consistency throughout the primary and secondary school systems, as having to learn different writing systems every time a student transfers can be frustrating and intimidating, not to mention stifling to the learning process.

The double vowel system is the most widely used orthography, but certainly not the only one. Some speakers use "folk phonetics," meaning that they write romanized spellings of Ojibwe words based on "how they sound," with very little consistency or thought given to the nature of the writing system. Other speakers, especially those in Canada, use a system called "syllabics," which has had a unique application in Algonquian languages and was developed almost one hundred years before the double vowel system.13 The problem with the syllabic orthography is that the symbols it uses are not found in any roman alphabet, forcing second language learners to study a separate set of symbols as well as a new language, p.r.o.nunciation, and grammar system. The double vowel system is well designed, easy to use, consistent, and accessible to all students of the language. The problem with the syllabic orthography is that the symbols it uses are not found in any roman alphabet, forcing second language learners to study a separate set of symbols as well as a new language, p.r.o.nunciation, and grammar system. The double vowel system is well designed, easy to use, consistent, and accessible to all students of the language.14 For a detailed description of the system, see John Nichols and Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm), For a detailed description of the system, see John Nichols and Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm), A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe.15 The editing process is quite long and technical, and I have elected not to include editorial or textual notes in this book. Such editorial apparatus takes up a good deal of s.p.a.ce and is not consulted frequently. However, all handwritten transcription notes, editorial notes, drafts, and original Ojibwe recordings have been archived at the Minnesota Historical Society. They are available for public use by those interested in the transcription and editorial process and by those interested in listening to and using the ca.s.sette tapes. Many of the recordings have been published through the Oshkaabewis Native Journal Oshkaabewis Native Journal and are still in print. and are still in print.16

Acknowledgments.

This work and the process of creating it were fundamentally shaped by many people. This book was created by and is owned by the speakers who tell its stories. I am personally indebted to each one of them for their generosity and kindness in opening up to me and allowing their stories to be recorded. Miigwech Miigwech Archie Mosay, Jim Clark, Melvin Eagle, Joe Auginaush, Collins Oakgrove, Emma Fisher, Scott Headbird, Susan Jackson, Hartley White, and Porky White. Archie Mosay, Jim Clark, Melvin Eagle, Joe Auginaush, Collins Oakgrove, Emma Fisher, Scott Headbird, Susan Jackson, Hartley White, and Porky White.

Many people a.s.sisted with my transcription and editing work. Several stories were proofread by Earl Otchingwanigan and John Nichols. Miigwech Miigwech for your a.s.sistance and invaluable contributions. Thanks to d.i.c.k Barber, Connie Rivard, Betsy Schultz, and Dora Ammann for help in glossing certain words and place names. for your a.s.sistance and invaluable contributions. Thanks to d.i.c.k Barber, Connie Rivard, Betsy Schultz, and Dora Ammann for help in glossing certain words and place names. Miigwech Miigwech also to Louise Erdrich, who recorded many of Jim Clark's stories, and to Paul DeMain, who recorded one of Archie Mosay's stories. Your efforts and concern for the Ojibwe language have done much to bring this work to fruition. Many thanks to Shannon Pennefeather, Greg Britton, Ann Regan, and the editorial staff at MHS for your faith in and attention to this work. At times the laughter of many people can be heard on the tapes. I hope these written transcriptions can do the tellings justice. Thanks to Susie Headbird, Dora Ammann, Brooke Ammann, Veronica Hvezda, Henry Flocken, David Treuer, Madeline Treuer, Sean Fahrlander, Keller Paap, and Sheila LaFriniere for sharing in the fun. also to Louise Erdrich, who recorded many of Jim Clark's stories, and to Paul DeMain, who recorded one of Archie Mosay's stories. Your efforts and concern for the Ojibwe language have done much to bring this work to fruition. Many thanks to Shannon Pennefeather, Greg Britton, Ann Regan, and the editorial staff at MHS for your faith in and attention to this work. At times the laughter of many people can be heard on the tapes. I hope these written transcriptions can do the tellings justice. Thanks to Susie Headbird, Dora Ammann, Brooke Ammann, Veronica Hvezda, Henry Flocken, David Treuer, Madeline Treuer, Sean Fahrlander, Keller Paap, and Sheila LaFriniere for sharing in the fun.

I received three grants to buy recording equipment and to travel to record the stories in this book. Miigwech Miigwech to the Leech Lake Reservation Tribal Council, the Committee on Inst.i.tutional Cooperation, and the Minnesota Historical Society for their support of this endeavor. to the Leech Lake Reservation Tribal Council, the Committee on Inst.i.tutional Cooperation, and the Minnesota Historical Society for their support of this endeavor.

The process of recording, transcribing, and translating these stories has been paralleled by a personal spiritual journey for me. I was profoundly moved, motivated, and guided by many people. I especially want to thank Archie Mosay, Tom Stillday, and Earl Otchingwanigan, who devoted so much of their precious time and boundless wisdom to my endeavors. Miigwech Miigwech for your patience, wisdom, and support. Thanks also to my parents Robert Treuer and Margaret Treuer, my siblings Megan, Micah, and David, my daughter Madeline, my ex-wife Sheila LaFriniere, and my dear friends James Hardy, Adrian Liberty, Henry Flocken, Sean Fahrlander, Mike Montano, Jay Saros, Dan and Dennis Jones, Isadore Toulouse, Keller Paap, Lisa LaRange, and Shannon White for supporting me and my endeavors without question. Without their guidance and faith, this project and my personal journey would not have come nearly so far. for your patience, wisdom, and support. Thanks also to my parents Robert Treuer and Margaret Treuer, my siblings Megan, Micah, and David, my daughter Madeline, my ex-wife Sheila LaFriniere, and my dear friends James Hardy, Adrian Liberty, Henry Flocken, Sean Fahrlander, Mike Montano, Jay Saros, Dan and Dennis Jones, Isadore Toulouse, Keller Paap, Lisa LaRange, and Shannon White for supporting me and my endeavors without question. Without their guidance and faith, this project and my personal journey would not have come nearly so far.

Notes.

1.As cited in census data taken from http://www.d.i.c.kshovel.com and John Nichols, "Ojibwa Language," in Frederick Hoxie, Encyclopedia of North American Indians Encyclopedia of North American Indians (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 44041. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 44041.

2.Mary Losure, "Saving Ojibwe." National Public Radio: December 26, 1996.

3.Sweetgra.s.s First Nations Language Council, "Sample of Fluent Native Speakers in Southern Ontario," Aboriginal Languages Development in Southern Ontario: Interim Report Aboriginal Languages Development in Southern Ontario: Interim Report, October 1994; Joe Chosa, interview, 1997.

4.There have been some attempts to textualize oral versions of Ojibwe migration. See William Warren, History of the Ojibway People History of the Ojibway People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1985) and Edward Benton, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1985) and Edward Benton, The Mishoomis Book The Mishoomis Book (Hayward: Indian Country Communications, 1988). (Hayward: Indian Country Communications, 1988).

5.For a good overview of the Iroquois Wars, see Helen Tanner, Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987). (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987).

6.The Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota have often been collectively called the Sioux. They are very closely related in terms of language and culture, although they did not function as one group or political ent.i.ty during this period. The word "Sioux" is a corruption of the Ojibwe word naadowesiwag naadowesiwag, meaning "snakes," in reference to them as an enemy.

7.Anton Treuer, "Ojibwe-Dakota Relations: Diplomacy, War and Social Union, 16791862" (master's thesis, University of Minnesota, 1994); Richard White, "The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Journal of American History Journal of American History 65.2 (1978): 31943. 65.2 (1978): 31943.

8.The Nelson Act mandated that the Ojibwe people consent to allotment. For most Ojibwe communities, treaties had already stripped away most of the primary land base, so they didn't have any leverage with which to bargain. At Red Lake, however, the entire land base was unceded. Commissioners seeking consent for allotment in Minnesota found that asking those at Red Lake to give up their primary land base and have the remainder alloted was simply too much to ask. Thus, commissioners succeeded in securing land cession from Red Lake but not allotment.

9.See the Morris Act of 1902, Clapp Rider of 1904, Clapp Rider of 1906, and Burke Act of 1906 in particular, discussed in Melissa L. Meyer, The White Earth Tragedy: Ethnicity and Dispossession at a Minnesota Anishinaabe Reservation The White Earth Tragedy: Ethnicity and Dispossession at a Minnesota Anishinaabe Reservation, 18891920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).

10.Maude Kegg, Portage Lake: Memories of an Ojibwe Childhood Portage Lake: Memories of an Ojibwe Childhood (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1991), ix. (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1991), ix.

11.Although this sentiment is well known, my understanding of this political division at Mille Lacs was developed by several conversations I had with David Aubid of Sandy Lake.

12.Anton Treuer, "The Importance of Language: A Closer Look," Oshkaabewis Oshkaabewis Native Journal Native Journal (Bemidji State University) 4 (Spring 1997): 311. (Bemidji State University) 4 (Spring 1997): 311.

13.Inukt.i.tut uses a syllabic writing system, although it is different from the one employed for Ojibwe and Cree.

14.Anton Treuer, "New Directions in Ojibwe Language Study," Oshkaabewis Native Journal Oshkaabewis Native Journal (Bemidji State University) 2 (Spring 1995): 36. (Bemidji State University) 2 (Spring 1995): 36.

15.John Nichols and Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm), A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).

16.To order tapes of the available recordings, write to Oshkaabewis Native Journal Oshkaabewis Native Journal, P.O. Box 1003, Bemidji, MN 56619, or call (218) 755-3977.

InaandagokaagBalsam Lake(St. Croix)

ARCHIE MOSAY.

ARCHIE MOSAY (19011996), whose Indian name was Niibaa-giizhig Niibaa-giizhig (Sleeping Sky or Evening Sky), was a man whose influence transcended his many t.i.tles. (Sleeping Sky or Evening Sky), was a man whose influence transcended his many t.i.tles.1 Medicine man, Medicine man, Midewakiwenzii Midewakiwenzii, Chief, Boss, Healer, Speaker, Religious Leader, Spiritual Advisor, Grandpa, Dad, Friend: he was all of these things and many more. The 1,200 people who paid their respects at his funeral represent a mere fraction of the lives he touched so deeply.2 Archie Mosay's parents did not send him to school after the second grade, choosing instead to keep him home and to instruct him in the art and rituals of traditional Indian religious leadership. This lack of education in the Western tradition enabled him to learn more about Ojibwe culture than most of his peers.

Born in a wiigiwaam wiigiwaam on August 20, 1901, near Balsam Lake, Wisconsin, Archie was raised in a traditional Indian community. on August 20, 1901, near Balsam Lake, Wisconsin, Archie was raised in a traditional Indian community.3 He was known only by his Indian name. The name "Archie" was given to him as a teenager when he went to work as a farm hand. The white wife of his employer was shocked to learn that he had no English name. When he returned to the farmhouse for lunch one day, she told him, "I have a name for you-'Archie.'" He was known only by his Indian name. The name "Archie" was given to him as a teenager when he went to work as a farm hand. The white wife of his employer was shocked to learn that he had no English name. When he returned to the farmhouse for lunch one day, she told him, "I have a name for you-'Archie.'" Niibaa-giizhig Niibaa-giizhig liked his new name and carried it with pride throughout the rest of his years. liked his new name and carried it with pride throughout the rest of his years.

Life was filled with hardships for Archie's family during his youth. In 1918 a flu epidemic ravaged the Ojibwe communities along the St. Croix River, taking Archie's maternal grandmother and his two siblings in one night. Archie's first wife and first child died of tuberculosis. In spite of these sorrows, Archie rebounded, remarried, and fathered eight more children.

Like his father and grandfather before him, Archie was instructed not only in ancient Ojibwe lifeways, but also in the complicated rituals of ceremonial leadership. At the age of twelve, he became Oshkaabewis Oshkaabewis (Messenger) in the (Messenger) in the Midewiwin Midewiwin (Medicine Lodge). In this position, he began to learn the complicated procedures and detailed legends essential to the ceremonies he would conduct later in his life. A skilled medicine man, Archie knew hundreds of plants and trees used for different types of healing, and he eagerly shared this wisdom with his children. He knew many ancient secrets for hunting and fishing, including the elaborate rituals of bear hunting. He was also well acquainted with the art of making bows and traditional Ojibwe birch-bark canoes. (Medicine Lodge). In this position, he began to learn the complicated procedures and detailed legends essential to the ceremonies he would conduct later in his life. A skilled medicine man, Archie knew hundreds of plants and trees used for different types of healing, and he eagerly shared this wisdom with his children. He knew many ancient secrets for hunting and fishing, including the elaborate rituals of bear hunting. He was also well acquainted with the art of making bows and traditional Ojibwe birch-bark canoes.

When Archie's father, Mike Mosay, died in 1971 at the age of 102, the communities of Round Lake and Balsam Lake were in a quandary as to how best to fill the vacuum left by his death. Mike Mosay had been the Grand Chief of the St. Croix Band and a central spiritual leader of his people. For a few years, the Medicine Dance was not conducted, as the people adjusted to the loss of their ceremonial chief.

In the early 1970s, an Ojibwe man from Round Lake approached Archie, offered him tobacco, and told him that his daughter would die if she could not be initiated into the Midewiwin Midewiwin. He begged Archie to help his girl, and eventually Archie acquiesced. Archie healed the man's daughter and revived his father's Midewiwin Midewiwin. From that point on, Archie a.s.sumed his father's role in presiding over the Medicine Dance and speaking at Big Drum Ceremonies. Initially, John Stone of Lac Courte Oreilles and other Ojibwe spiritual leaders from Wisconsin and Minnesota helped Archie conduct his ceremonies. As time went on and other leaders died, Archie carried on the work alone, and increasing numbers of people traveled from other Ojibwe communities to partic.i.p.ate in ceremonies at Round Lake and at Balsam Lake.

Shortly after his father's death, Archie also a.s.sumed the honored position of Grand Chief of the St. Croix Ojibwe. The position had been in the family for several generations, and Archie carried the feather war bonnet and 1789 United States peace medallion, which had been pa.s.sed on through his father, as proud symbols of that t.i.tle and position.4 In all of his spiritual work, Archie used his first language, the only language he knew until a teenager, and, according to him, the only language intended for Ojibwe prayer-anishinaabemowin, the Ojibwe language. One day, Archie stepped outside of his ceremonial Medicine Lodge to lecture his helpers, saying, "I can't use English in there. The Spirit doesn't understand me when I use English." This perspective also explains Archie's focus on the importance of keeping the Ojibwe language alive. Without the language, there is no Midewiwin Midewiwin, no Big Drum, no Jiisakaan Jiisakaan (Shake Tent Ceremony). Without the Ojibwe language, there is no Ojibwe culture. (Shake Tent Ceremony). Without the Ojibwe language, there is no Ojibwe culture.

At various times Archie fed his family by hunting and fishing and by working as a groundskeeper at Balsam Lake resorts and as a mason and a rations plant worker during World War II. For the bulk of his working years-thirty-four to be exact-Archie worked for the Polk County Highway Department. However, as often happens with Indian elders, Archie in his retirement was more active than in his working years. His new work included counseling people recovering from alcohol addiction at the Ain-Dah-Ing Ain-Dah-Ing ( (Endaayang) Half Way House in Spooner, Wisconsin. Throughout his ninety-four years on earth, Archie Mosay had never used alcohol, a practice to which he attributed his good health and long life. Traveling frequently to conduct various ceremonies and to speak at pow-wows and conferences, Archie became a true servant of the Spirit-working hard for his people until his last day on earth.

At age ninety-four, Archie was still independent, driving himself and living alone. His children looked after him, bringing food to his house and washing his clothes, but Archie lived his own life every day, never residing in a nursing home. He died in 1996.

Thousands of people approached Archie over the years-from his maternal grandmother's reservation, Lac Courte Oreilles, from his father's place of origin, Mille Lacs, and from many other places as well. Archie gave hundreds of people their Indian names. He initiated over a thousand people into the Medicine Lodge. He spoke at countless pipe ceremonies and Big Drum feasts.

Archie's stories collected here are rich and varied. Archie remembered the first time he saw a car and the first time he saw a black man. He remembered what it was like when his children were born in wiigiwaams wiigiwaams.5 He also recalled how Ojibwe people traveled long distances on foot to partic.i.p.ate in the Medicine Dance at other communities. Frequently his family walked to Lac Courte Oreilles for this purpose, a one-way journey of three days on foot. His father journeyed by foot from Mille Lacs to Balsam Lake, six days round trip, in order to court Archie's mother. Archie also remembered hunting in the St. Croix River Valley's tall pine forests before logging decimated them-trees so large and canopies so dense that no other plant life grew on the forest floor and one could walk on the pine needles more quietly than on pavement. All these stories as well as several jokes and remembrances are included in this collection. He also recalled how Ojibwe people traveled long distances on foot to partic.i.p.ate in the Medicine Dance at other communities. Frequently his family walked to Lac Courte Oreilles for this purpose, a one-way journey of three days on foot. His father journeyed by foot from Mille Lacs to Balsam Lake, six days round trip, in order to court Archie's mother. Archie also remembered hunting in the St. Croix River Valley's tall pine forests before logging decimated them-trees so large and canopies so dense that no other plant life grew on the forest floor and one could walk on the pine needles more quietly than on pavement. All these stories as well as several jokes and remembrances are included in this collection.

The stories presented here were usually recorded at the home of Archie Mosay.6 Sometimes I would arrange special trips to visit Archie for this purpose. More often, we would record a few stories before or after a ceremonial event that had brought me to Balsam Lake, such as the naming ceremony for my daughter, a funeral, a drum ceremony, or a Medicine Dance. The story "Mii Sa Iw" was written down through dictation. All others were recorded and then transcribed. Archie died before the transcription work was complete. For this reason, the t.i.tles for all of the stories presented here are of my creation. They are usually derived from lines in the stories themselves, but they are not part of the oral tradition they label. They are used here for ease of reading and differentiating stories. In the process of translating stories and selecting t.i.tles, I consulted Archie's friends and family members as well as Ojibwe linguist Earl Otchingwanigan. Sometimes I would arrange special trips to visit Archie for this purpose. More often, we would record a few stories before or after a ceremonial event that had brought me to Balsam Lake, such as the naming ceremony for my daughter, a funeral, a drum ceremony, or a Medicine Dance. The story "Mii Sa Iw" was written down through dictation. All others were recorded and then transcribed. Archie died before the transcription work was complete. For this reason, the t.i.tles for all of the stories presented here are of my creation. They are usually derived from lines in the stories themselves, but they are not part of the oral tradition they label. They are used here for ease of reading and differentiating stories. In the process of translating stories and selecting t.i.tles, I consulted Archie's friends and family members as well as Ojibwe linguist Earl Otchingwanigan.

Usually, Archie selected the topics for discussion or the stories he wished to tell. Occasionally, one of his daughters or I would encourage him to share a story we had heard him tell before. In all cases, however, Archie, his daughter Dora Ammann, and I were careful to choose topics appropriate for recording and publication. No sacred legends from the Midewiwin Midewiwin were ever recorded. Archie always strictly maintained that those stories could only be learned in the Medicine Lodge itself and that they had to be pa.s.sed on through oral tradition, without the aid of modern technology. were ever recorded. Archie always strictly maintained that those stories could only be learned in the Medicine Lodge itself and that they had to be pa.s.sed on through oral tradition, without the aid of modern technology.

Archie's dialect of Ojibwe differs somewhat from that of most other speakers in this book. Although two of Archie's grandparents were from East Lake, his language was more heavily influenced by his grandmother from Lac Courte Oreilles and his grandfather from Balsam Lake. Thus, Archie uses zaaga'egan zaaga'egan for "lake" where most speakers of Minnesota Ojibwe use for "lake" where most speakers of Minnesota Ojibwe use zaaga'igan zaaga'igan. In addition, aniw aniw is used in place of is used in place of iniw iniw. Archie also seemed to prefer using the first to third person conjunct transitive animate verb paradigm -agig rather than rather than agwaa: for example, waabamagig waabamagig (when I see them) rather than (when I see them) rather than waabamagwaa waabamagwaa (when I see them). These forms are used by many speakers interchangeably, but the patterns of Archie's language usage and p.r.o.nunciation are noteworthy. Archie and his contemporaries wanted all dialects of the Ojibwe language to survive. Differences are to be celebrated rather than denigrated. (when I see them). These forms are used by many speakers interchangeably, but the patterns of Archie's language usage and p.r.o.nunciation are noteworthy. Archie and his contemporaries wanted all dialects of the Ojibwe language to survive. Differences are to be celebrated rather than denigrated.

Notes.

1. This observation, held by many people, was eloquently written by David Hanners in "Spirit World Now Beckons to Legendary Tribal Leader," St. Paul Pioneer Press, St. Paul Pioneer Press, August 2, 1996, 1B, 4B. August 2, 1996, 1B, 4B.

2. Paul DeMain, "Nebageshig is Laid to Rest," News From Indian Country News From Indian Country, mid- September 1996, 7A.

3. The exact date of Archie Mosay's birth is not known. Archie and his children accepted the date of August 20, 1901. However, this is only their best guess. His exact place of birth is also unknown-whether in the woods or a wiigiwaam wiigiwaam-although he was born somewhere in the vicinity of the Indian village of Inaandagokaag near present-day Balsam Lake, Wisconsin.

4. It is not clear if the peace medallion was originally given to Archie's paternal grandfather Shakopee of Mille Lacs or to a chief on his mother's side at St. Croix. The feather war bonnet appears to have come from Mille Lacs. The name "Shakopee" was adopted from the Dakota and was carried by a couple of prominent Ojibwe leaders as well as by Dakota people.

5. Wayne Mosay, his youngest child, was the only one of Archie's offspring to have been born in a hospital.

6. The dibaajimowin dibaajimowin "Mii Gaa-pi-izhichigewaad Mewinzha" was originally recorded by Paul DeMain during an interview with Archie broadcast on Lac Courte Oreilles tribal radio station WOJB 88.9 FM of Reserve, Wisconsin, on April 10, 1996. He released reproduction rights for the recording with the permission of Archie's family. "Mii Gaa-pi-izhichigewaad Mewinzha" was originally recorded by Paul DeMain during an interview with Archie broadcast on Lac Courte Oreilles tribal radio station WOJB 88.9 FM of Reserve, Wisconsin, on April 10, 1996. He released reproduction rights for the recording with the permission of Archie's family.

Gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziyaang[1]Akawe niwii-tibaajim o'ow gaa-izhiwebiziyaan o'ow isa gii-oshki-bimaadiziyaan. Gaawiin ingikendanziin aandi gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziyaan-gemaa gaye wiigiwaaming gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziwaanen gemaa gaye nisawa'ogaaning gemaa gaye iwidi ingoji megwekob gemaa gaye. Mii iwidi gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziwaambaanen.[2]Baanimaa ashi-niiyo-biboonagiziyaan, mii apii waakaa'igaans noosiban gaa-ozhitood. Mii apii gii-ayaayaang. Ishkweyaang, mii apane wiigiwaaming ingii-taamin. Mii dash imaa gaa-tazhi-nitaawigiyaan imaa, imaa sa Inaandagokaag ezhinikaadeg. Mewinzha ingii-tazhi-ondaadiz. Ingitiziimag igaye imaa ginwenzh omaa gii-tanakiiwag, nayenzh igo.[3]Noosiban, iwidi sa Misi-zaaga'iganiing ezhinikaadeg, mii iwidi gaa-tazhi-ondaadizid a'aw noosiban. Mii dash imaa, miish imaa midaaswi-ashi-zhaangaso-biboonagizid, mii imaa gii-wiidigemaad nimaamaayibanen. Miish omaa gii-ayaad biinish gii-maajaad. Miinawaa onow oniijaanisan gii-shaangachiwan oniijaanisan, ingitiziimag.Mii Gaa-pi-izhichigewaad Mewinzha[1]Boozhoo anishinaabedog! Akawe niwii-tibaajim o'ow isa ayindiyaan ishkweyaang gii-oshki-bimaadiziyaan. Gaawiin indaa-gikendanziin dibi gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziwaanen-gemaa gaye wiigiwaaming gemaa gaye nisawa'ogaaning gemaa gaye iwidi ingoji megwekob gemaa gaye. Mii iwidi gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziwaad aanind anishinaabeg ishkweyaang.[2]Ganabaj gii-ashi-niiyo-biboonagiziyaan, mii bijiinag apii gaa-piindigeyaan ayi'ii waakaa'igaans indedeyiban gaa-ozhitood. Mii eta go wiigiwaaming gii-ayaayaang bebiboon. Miinawaa wa'aw ingitiziimag iwidi Odaawaa-zaaga'eganiing izhinikaadeg, mii iwidi nimaamaayiban gaa-tazhi-ondaadizid. Imaa o'ow, aya'aa Aanakwad ezhinikaazod anishinaabe, iwidi gaa-tanakiiwaad. Miish iwidi ingoji gaa-tazhi-ondaadiziwagobanen a'aw nimaamaayiban aya'aa Neweyaash akiwenzii gii-izhinikaazowan odedeyan. O'ow dash nimaamaa onaabeman gaa-wiidigemaajin ishkweyaang a'aw mindimooyenh gii-izhinikaazod.[3]Mayaajaanid sa onow onaabeman, miish imaa neyaab Inaandagokaag gaa-pi-izhi-goziwaad. Mii dash imaa gaa-tanakiiwaad, gaa-tazhi-gonaadizid a'aw nookomisiban, nimaamaayiban igaye wiiba go gaawiin aapiji mewinzha gaa-ako-bimaadizid. Miinawaa a'aw isa noosiban, iwidi Misi-zaaga'eganiing ezhinikaadeg, mii imaa gaa-tazhi-ondaadizid. Imaa dash Inaandagokaag, imaa gii-wiidigemaad iniw nimaamaayibanen. Midaaswi-ashi-zhaangaso-biboonagizid, mii apii imaa gaa-wiidigemaad nimaamaayibanen.[4]Mii dash gaye niin imaa gaa-onji-maajiishkaayaan wendaadiziyaan. Waakaa'igaans ogii-ozhitoon imaa a'aw noosiban. Mii imaa gii-ayaayaang.[5]Gaye dash o'ow isa ziigw.a.n.g, o'ow apiitak, mii apii mewinzha anishinaabe gii-kozid noopiming izhi-gozi, gii-ozhitood o'ow, o'ow isa ziinzibaakwad mitigong ininigaadeg zhiiwaagamizigan. Mii gaa-ozhitoowaad. Mii iwidi gaa-taawaad, gaawiin waasa-gemaa gaye naano-diba'igan o'ow apii iwidi ingoji megwaayaak. Mii iwidi gaa-taawaad iskigamizigewaad.[6]Mii miinawaa ishkwaa-iskigamizigewaad, miish imaa jiigibiig zaaga'eganiing Inaandagokaag, mii imaa gii-kabeshiwaad. Noongom miinawaa imaa gii-kabeshiwag gii-noojigiigoonyiwewaad waaswaawaad, ashiganan aajigwaawaad. Mii imaa gaa-tanakiid wa'aw, gaa-onji-bimaadizid a'aw anishinaabe mewinzha.[7]Mii miinawaa giiwegoziwaad. Mii dash zhayiigwa gii-ozhiitaawaad o'ow isa gii-midewid anishinaabe. Akina ingoji gii-midewi aw anishinaabe-Odaawaa-zaaga'eganiing, miinawaa a'aw Waaswaaganing, miinawaa Mashkii-ziibiing, miinawaa iwidi Dewegishigamiing. Namanj ezhinikaadegwen i'iw, anishinaabewinikaadeg iwidi ishkonigan. Miinawaa go omaa ayi'iing gaye Wekonamindaawagaansing izhinikaadeg, miinawaa iwidi Metaaw.a.n.gaag, Bikoganaaganing-mii imaa gii-midewiwaad iko ingiw anishinaabeg mewinzha.[8]Mii miinawaa ishkwaa-midewiwaad, mii dash miinawaa gii-sagaswe'idiwaad o'ow baakibii'ang o'ow zaaga'eganiing; gii-asemaakewaad onji-naanaagadawenimigoowaad manidoon imaa wenjishkaawaaniwenijin.[9]Mii miinawaa ishkwaa-zagaswe'idiwaad, mii dash miinawaa ayiigwa o'ow isa gii-mawinzowaad onow editeg miinan, miskominan, G.o.dagaagominan, o'ow isa gegoo editenig. Mii i'iw gaa-mawinzowaad. Mii gaa-onji-bimaadizid a'aw anishinaabe mewinzha, gaye niin bi-de-gikendamaan. Mii dash i'iw.[10]Miinawaa dagwaaginig, mii azhigwa gii-madaabiigoziwaad o'ow isa gii-manoominikewaad, manoomin gii-bawa'amowaad. Akawe gii-sagaswe'idiwag waa-manoominikewaad, asemaakewag o'ow isa zaaga'eganiing gii-kaagiijitoowaad o'ow isa manoomin wii-pawa'amowaad. Gaawiin awiiya gii-izhi-boozisiin. Akawe asemaan ogii-pagidinaan nibiikaang.[11]Miinawaa gii-kiizhitood a'aw anishinaabe manoomin, akawe asemaan ogii-pagidinamawaan manidoon wii-izhi-miijisig i'iw manoomin. Mii gaa-miijiwaad. Mii akeyaa gaa-pi-izhi-waabamagig ingiw anishinaabeg ishkweyaang.[12]Akina ingoji gii-izhaa gaye aw anishinaabe sa o'ow isa gii-paa-midewid. Gaye iwidi Odaawaa-zaaga'eganiing izhinikaadeg imaa Baatawigamaag, mii imaa gaa-tazhi-midewiwaad mewinzha anishinaabeg. Ingoji gaa-izhi-bimoseyaang gii-o-midewiyaang gii-nandomaakawaa noosiban o-wiidookaazod owidi wiidookawaad akiwenziiyan gaa-midewiwinijin. Niso-giizhigon ingii-tazhi-izhaamin gii-tagoshinaang. Mii akeyaa gaa-izhichiged a'aw anishinaabe ishkweyaang gii-naazikang o'ow isa gaa-onji-bimaadizid. Noongom gaawiin izhichigesiin a'aw anishinaabe bi-naazikang bi-onji-bimaadizid. Gaye o'ow midewiwin ogii-igoon a'aw manidoon, mii go gaa-ani-izhi-maamawookang a'aw anishinaabe o'ow isa maanangid, o'ow isa gii-onji-maajiishkaad mii gaa-ininang manidoo. Mii sa i'iw gaa-izhichigewaad mewinzha ongow anishinaabeg, gii-izhaawaad gegoo inakamigizid ingoji anishinaabe.[13]Mii go gaye a'aw, a'aw isa dewe'igan gaa-pi-bagidinaajin a'aw meyagwed anishinaabe omaa akeyaa. Iwidi mashkodeng izhinikaadeg, mii iwidi gaa-onjiid a'aw meyagwed anishinaabe imaa Neyaashiing Misi-zaaga'eganiing izhinikaadeg. Mii imaa gii-pi-bagidinaad iniw dewe'iganan gaa-onji-maajiishkaanid anishinaaben. Mii imaa gaa-pi-onji-bagidinaad. Mii dash imaa gaa-onji-maajiishkaad aw anishinaabe. Gaye a'aw meyagwed anishinaabe, o'ow isa gii-aasamigaabawi'aad onow isa meyagwenijin chimookomaanan ogii-igoon wii-chaaginaniG.o.d. Manidoo dash gaawiin ogii-minwaabandanziin. Mii sa ji-gaawi'awiwid aabidinginwed anishinaabe. Mii dash gaa-onji-niishimaad manidoo naagaanizid onow dewe'iganan omaa noongom enawiindamaagenijin.[14]Mii akeyaa gaa-izhichiged a'aw anishinaabe ishkweyaang. O'ow isa gaye niin gii-te-gitenimag gii-waabamagig gaa-izhichigewaad. Mii gaye niin imaa bangii wenji-gikendamaan o'ow isa izhi-inaadamawag anishinaabe. Gii-kikinoo'amawiwaad, mii a'aw Neweyaash akiwenzii gaa-izhinikaazod nimishoomisiban, mii a'aw gaa-waawiindamawid i'iw ge-ani-izhichigeyaan naadamawag anishinaabe gegoo. Gaawiin indaa-inaasiin. Gaawiin indaa-inaasiin gegoo gagwejimid. Mii eta go wiindamawag gegoo gaye wii-kikendang.[15]Gaye onow izhinikaazowinan, anishinaabe-izhinikaazowinan, mii o'ow i'iw isa gii-kii'igoshimoyaan mewinzha gii-kwiiwizensiwiyaan. Mii imaa wendinamaan iniw, iniw isa anishinaabe-izhinikaazowinan. Noongom gaawiin gwech anishinaabe-izhinikaazowinan odayaanziinan. Mii i'iw wanitoowaad i'iw. Akina sa go gegoo owanitoon anishinaabe mewinzha gaa-pi-izhi-waabamagig.[16]Gaye onow wiigiwaaman, gabe-niibin ongow ikwewag gii-ozhitoowaad onow, onow isa gaa-apishimowaajin anaakaning, gaa-izhi-wiindamawaajin. Miinawaa onow megwaa abakw.a.n.g iniw wiigwaasan, mii apii gaa-mamoowaad gii-ozhitoowaad iniw, iniw isa wiigwaasi-abakwayan. Miinawaa ingiw aya'aa apakweshkweyag gii-iniibinaawaad ingoji ayi'ii wiigiwaaming. Mii imaa gii-aabaji'aawaad iniw agidigamish iniw wiigwaasan wiigwaasi-abakwayan. Mii akeyaa gaa-ozhitoowaad iniw, iniw isa gii-abiwaad.Wenabozho Gaa-kiishkigwebinaad Zhiishiiban[1]Wenabozho gii-pimosed bakade; gaa gegoo omiijisiin. Maajiibadaabiid zaaga'egan owaabamaan zhiishiiban gii-awi-bakaded omaa jiigibiig. Miish abezhig zhiishiib, "Zhiishiibidog!" odinaan, "Wenabozho madaabii. Naawij inaadagaag. Anooj izhiwebizi Wenabozho."[2]Wenabozho onoondawaan zhiishiiban. "Gaawiin nishiimeyidog! Imaa noopiming niwii-niimi'idiimin noongom onaagoshig." Mii gaa-izhi-gopiid wiigiwaam imaa gaa-ozhitood waagaashkang. Wiigiwaam imaa badakidenig. Mii gaa-izhi-onapidood giboodiyegwaazonan, aasaakamig gaa-kashkapidood omaa o'ow bimoondang.[3]Miish i'iw inaad zhiishiiban, "Nishiimenyidog!" Odizhi-inaan, "Nishiimeyidog! Mii akeyaa bemoondamaan," ikido. "Nagamonan onow bimoondamaanen. Owidi Mooniyaang izhinikaadeg, mii iwidi wenjibaayaan. Miish omaa waa-onji-niimi'idiiyaang noongom noopiming." "Apegish," gii-inendam wii-nisaad iniw zhiishiiban, wii-amwaad bakaded.

[4]Gaa-izhi-gopiiwaad iwidi, zhiishiibag o-niimi'idiiwaad, biindigewaad imaa wiigiwaam. Megwaa oganoonaan, "Nishiimeyidog! Inga-nagam. Nishiimeyidog, bazangwaabishimok! Gego inaabikegon," odinaan iniw zhiishiiban. "Omaa apii azhigwa maajiiyaan nishiweyaan."Nishiimeyidogwen, gego inaabikegon Giga-mamiskoshkiinzhigwem Yo weh heh heh Yo weh heh heh[5]Mii aanG.o.dinong giishkigwebinaad iniw zhiishiiban, "kwenk," inwewan giiwenh. "Haa nishiimeyidog, mii go waa-inweyeg." Nagamo, giishkigwebinaad. "Wenk."[6]Miish a'aw zhingibiz gaa-izhi-dooskaabamaad aaniin ezhichiged. Awenesh ingiw gaa-kiishkigwebinaawaad iniw zhiishiiban? Mii gaa-izhi-biibaagimaad zhiishiiban, "Hey zhiishiibidog! Gidishkwamigonaan Wenabozho. Giga-abwaanigonaan." Aabita-zaagiziba'idiwaad ingiw zhiishiibag. Mii go giiwenh iniw zhingibizan gaa-waagaawinid omadaabiiba'igoon ini-daangishkawaad. Miish i'iw gaa-inaad, "Oon gidizhi-maajiikamigoog. Gaawiin a'aw iwidi, a'aw anishinaabe, giga-amwigosiin," ogii-inaan zhingibizan. "Giga-mamiskoshkiinzhigwe gaye," ogii-inaan. Mii wenji-mamiskoshkiinzhigwed a'aw zhingibiz. zhiishiibidog! Gidishkwamigonaan Wenabozho. Giga-abwaanigonaan." Aabita-zaagiziba'idiwaad ingiw zhiishiibag. Mii go giiwenh iniw zhingibizan gaa-waagaawinid omadaabiiba'igoon ini-daangishkawaad. Miish i'iw gaa-inaad, "Oon gidizhi-maajiikamigoog. Gaawiin a'aw iwidi, a'aw anishinaabe, giga-amwigosiin," ogii-inaan zhingibizan. "Giga-mamiskoshkiinzhigwe gaye," ogii-inaan. Mii wenji-mamiskoshkiinzhigwed a'aw zhingibiz.[7]Mii gaa-izhi-ayaad Wenabozho.[8]Mii gaa-maajaad, apii ziibiwan madaabii, bimoomaad zhiishiiban gaa-kiishkigwebinaajin, iidog iwidi waabandang wii-abwed iniw zhiishiiban. Imaa naa akawe gii-kiizhiitaad gii-nibaa aapiji giizizwaad onow zhiishiiban. Mii dash o'ow gii-nibaad.[9]Mii dash awedig, ongow akandoowaagwen, "Akawaabin," iniw gaa-inaajimaad, "inaabin." Bwaanag ongow boonowag. "Wiindamawishin awiiya biidaaboonod." Namanj apii nibaagobanen. Mii wiin waabamaawaad omaa bashkinedenig bwaanag. "Mii a'aw Wenabozho," ikidowag. "Gegoo omaa odayaan." Miish iniw miskwaanziganan wewebinamowaad, mii niigaan wiindamawaasig iniw akandoowaajin, akina gaa-izhi-mamoonid iniw abwaadang maajaanid.[10]Omaa apii wiin gaye gweshkozid, a'aw mewinzha iidog igo minozogoban, onishkaad inaabid Wenabozho bangii odabwaan gii-mamoonid, mamiG.o.d iniw bwaanan. Mii dash ayi'ii gaa-izhi-nishkaadizid. Mii gaa-izhi-jaagizodizod, omaa apii maajaad. Mii dash o'ow gii-chaagizod, gizhiibazhed giiwenh omigiid. Mii dash onow mitigoonsan gaa-ani-izhi-ayaang.[11]Mii dash i'iw gaa-ikidod: "Nishiimeyidog," ogii-inaan, "a'aw anishinaabe omaa ge-ani-bimaadizid. Mii gaye ezhi-wiinineg apaakozigan, gaa-izhi-miinigoowaawiyeg." Mii gaa-ondinang anishinaabe gaa-sagaswaadang apaakoziganan. Mii i'iw Wenabozho gaa-ozhitood i'iw.[12]Mii inaadizookewaad ongow akiwenziiyag mewinzha.Wayeshkad Gaa-waabamag Aadamoobii[1]Wayeshkad, ayaaban a'aw chimookomaan, bimiwinigoojin a'aw isa aadamoobii gaa-izhi-wiinaawaajin. Miikana imbima'adoomin bezhig oshki-inini. Aazhaa noondaw.a.n.gid biidwewebizod, biidweweg gegoo. Mii dash gaawiin, ingwiiwizensiwimin. Ingii-segizimin dash noondamaang biidweweg omaa miikanaang.[2]Gaawiin igo, noongom izhinaagwak onow miikanan, gaawiin gii-izhinaagwasinoon. Mii eta go onow; gitawaakwaa'igaadewan. Mii gaa-izhinaagwak iniw miikanan mewinzha.[3]Mii eta bebezhigoganzhiig miinawaa dibidaabaanan gaa-izhidaabii'iwewaad chimookomaanag. Mii dash imaa gaye gii-noondaw.a.n.gid a'aw, biidweweg gegoo, mii gaa-izhi-bakeyaang gaa-kaazootaw.a.n.gid. Nimikigaazomin opime-miikanaang megwaa omaa go bes...o...b..a-ayaad ginwenzh wa'aw, wa'aw isa aadamoobii bemiwininang noongom.[4]Ginwenzh wii-adima'wiyangid imaa gaa-waabamiyangid bimibizod, ingii-segi'igoonaan gii-piidwewed. Mii go wayeshkad gii-waabamag a'aw, a'aw isa aadamoobii izhi-wiinaajin anishinaabe mewinzha. Mii dash imaa gaa-onji-gaazotaw.a.n.gid gii-segi'iyangid.[5]Mii dash imaa akawe minik waa-kaagiigidoyaan.Nitamising Gaa-waabamag Makadewiiyaas[1]Wayeshkad gii-waabamag a'aw isa makadewiiyaas aazhaa wiindamawaajin anishinaabe omaa oodenaang, omaa endanakiiyaan, gaye imaa gii-pagaboodegoziwaad ingiw makadewiiyaasag, oniijaanisan a'aw inini, wiiwan, gaa-pi-aanjigoziwaad omaa o'ow isa gaa-paapaagokozhiwewinini, mii i'iw a'aw makadewiiyaas. Ginwenzh omaa gii-tanakii Inaandakokaag, gii-paapaagokozhiwewininiiwid wayeshkad gii-waabamag a'aw, a'aw isa makadewiiyaas ezhi-wiinind.[2]Imaa wiin gaye weweni ogii-inenimaan anishinaaben. Imaa gaa-tanakiinijin, gaawiin wiikaa gegoo omaa ayaasiin endaad inini. Gaye odaa-gii-inaan. Mii eta go anooj gii-inaajimod igaye aanawi ojibwemo gaye gii-kikinoo'amaw.a.n.gid i'iw isa ojibwemowin. Mii apii gii-oshki-waabamag a'aw isa mekadewizid bemaadizid. Iwidi chi-agaamiing akeyaa o'ow isa bezhig minis, mii iwidi gaa-onjibaad, a'aw makadewiiyaas ezhi-wiinaajin anishinaabe.[3]Mii dash akawe imaa minik waa-kaagiigidoyaan.Nandawaaboozwe Makadewiiyaas[1]Aabiding bezhig inini ingii-wiiji'igoonaan baa-nandawaaboozweyaang. Waabishkiki imaa ayaamagad, mii imaa gii-ayaawaad ingiw waabishki-waaboozoog. Miish imaa gaa-inaad, "Mii omaa akandoon," ogii-inaan, "Da-bi-naazikawaawag waaboozoog."[2]Miish imaa gii-naaniibawid aw makadewiiyaas. Gaawiin dash ogii-naazikawaasiiwaawaan ingiw waaboozoog, iniw anishinaabe gaa-wiiji'waad. Mii iwidi gii-naganaad gaa-pi-izhi-giiwed. Mii wenji-izhiwebizigwen a'aw makadewiiyaas.Waabooz Gaa-piindashkwaanind[1]Aabiding gaye mii go makadewiiyaas, mii go a'aw inini gaa-maajiinaad. Mii dash iniw waaboozoon gii-kijiigibinaad, gaa-izhi-biindashkwaanaad. Mii dash iwidi waa-izhiwinaagwen, mii iwidi gii-wenabi'aad iniw waaboozoon.[2]Maajii-giiwewaad idash, bebimosewaad gaa-izhi-gaganoonaad, "Waabam awedi waabooz nemadabid," ogii-inaan. Ginwezh wiin a'aw waabooz gaa-piindashkwaanind, ezhi-gaabawid imaa makadewiiyaas ezhi-baashkizwaad iniw-gaa-piindashkwaanaawaanijin waaboozoon.Gaa-amwaawaad Animoonsan[1]InG.o.ding iwidi Bwaanakiing gii-izhaayaan, gii-niimi'idiiwag iwidi anishinaabeg. Mii gaa-izhaayaan gii-waabamangidwaa wenaagoshing gii-wiisiniwaad. Mii dash iwidi jiigi-ziibiing, gabeshiwin iwidi ayaamagad. Mii i'iw waa-tazhi-wiisiniwaad. Mii dash imaa bii'oyaang, bezhig imaa inini gii-pi-wawenabi namadabiyaan adoopowining, imaa gaagiigidod, dibaajimod. Mii gaa-tibaajimotawid:[2]Waakaa'igan imaa ate. Bedosewag endaawaagwen. Ininiwag-sh omaa niswi gii-kiiwashkwebiiwag. Agwajiing imaa boodawewag, boodawazowag.[3]Chimookomaan imaa gii-pimibizo. Animoonsan ogii-ayaawaan imaa odoodaabaaning. Miish gaa-inaad anishinaaben, "Awiiya na imaa animoonsan ogii-ayaawaan?" Odinaan gaye wiin ininiwan niswi. "Gaawiin indayaasiiwaanaanig ingiw animoonsag," odinaan. Mii dash chimookomaan odinaan, "Inga-naganaag awiiya waa-ayaawaad," gii-izhi-mamaad. Mii inaad iniw anishinaaben.[4]Miish imaa gii-naganaad iniw animoonsan, niswi ganabaj inaajimotaagooyaan. Miish ingiw ininiwag, gaawashkwebiijig, gemaa gaye gaa-pakadewaagwen. Mii waa-izhi-amwaad bezhig animoonsan. Imaa dash a'aw inini wii-inendam, bezhig inini. Miish i'iw waa-panzwaad a'aw bezhig inini animoonsan. Mii dash ganabaj gaa-izhi-aabizhiishing a'aw animoons. Mii gaa-izhi-dakwamiG.o.d omaa oninjiing. Mii apaginaad iwidi megwe-mashkosiing. Mii gaa-izhi-maadakizige'iding. Niibowa gii-chaagide.[5]Niizh waakaa'iganan ogii-chaagizaanan a'aw waa-pagamibizowaad ingiw getewininiwag. Bezhig gwiiwizens imaa babaamibizod oditibiwebishkiganan. Miish a'aw naagaanizid i'iw baate gaye miinawaa ogagwejimaan gwiiwizensan, "Aaniish gaye wiin wenji-maadaakideg omaa," odinaan ji-izhi-gagwejimaad. "Namanj iidog," ikido. "Gaawiin ingikendanziin," ikido. "Mii eta go ingiwedig ininiwag, nemadabijig," ikido. "Animoonsan imaa owii-panzwaawaan. Megwe-mashkosiwishiing owii-apaginaan. Mii imaa gaa-onji-maadaakideg," odinaan iniw chimookomaanan. "Oon chi-baakizigewaad i'iw. Niizh waakaa'iganan ojaagizaanaawaan."Gaa-pazhiba'wid Niijanishinaabe[1]Oodenaang-sh ingii-izhaa maajaayaan. Omaa apii aabita inagakeyaa anishinaabeg endaawaad, ikwe imaa zaagizibatoo waakaa'igaansing. "Inini omaa omiigaanaan ninaabeman. Ogii-pazhiba'waan mookomaanens," indig.[2]Ingii-ashi-naano-biboonagiz i'iw apii. Namanj iidog izhichigewaanen. "Gaa indaa-bazhiba'wigosiig waa-ani-miigaanaajin," indinendam. Imaa anooj igo inendamaan, ingii-o-biindige. Imaa dash dazhiikodaadiwaad imaa michisag, debibidowag i'iw onik da-bagijwebinang i'iw mookomaanens. Mii imaa apiichiikawag o'ow, aanawi maakabiwag mookomaanens gaa-izhi-bazhiba'odamaan nindinimaanganaang.[3]Miinawaa omaa ninikaang gaye omaa ingii-inizhwig. Miinawaa indiy ingii-pazhiba'wig niizhing. Imbeshizhwig o'ow nininjiining. Mii gii-gwayako-giishkizhwid o'ow mashkijiitad a'aw. Oon aanawi giishkizhaa omaa apii. Mii dash gaa-inizhang. Mii go omaa o'ow ezhinaagwak. Mii gaawiin dash ogii-kiishkizhanziin. Mii i'iw akeyaa gaa-inaapinazhid a'aw inini.[4]Miish gaa-azhegiiweyaan endaayaan, biindigeyaan imaa endaawaad, nimaamaayiban, "Aaniish ezhiwebiziyan miskwiiwiyan," ikido. "Oon," wiindamawag, "Ezhi-bimaaji'ag a'aw inini imaa, ininiwan omiigaanaan owii-pazhiba'waan dash indaa-in