Carduaceae, Astragali, Nardoid, Bromoid, Hordeoid p.u.b.escens, and Statices. And up to this, which may be a.s.sumed as 13,500 feet, the hills present the same features, rounded with a good deal of soil, and large granitic ma.s.ses.

But above this the disintegration of the ridge has reached a great extent; for 1,500 to 2,000 feet the ascent is steep, pa.s.sing over a profusion of blocks and slabs of granite, generally externally of a dark brown colour; here and there there is some coa.r.s.e granular soil, and towards the second station, say at an alt.i.tude of 14,000 feet, a marshy spot occurred, crowded with Primula, together with Arenaria, Fumaria of Erak, Ranunculus of Hajeeguk, Carex, etc. From within 1,000 feet of the summit the ascent was easier, over ground composed entirely of small angular bits of granite, which rock protrudes to the north, forming the south wall of a huge amphitheatre, heavily snowed in places.

This granite varies much; being below a coa.r.s.e quartzose grey rock, above a very compact brown rock, except perhaps in its lowest outcrop, where it has a slaty structure.

The second station may be a.s.sumed as the lowest limit of the inferior snow line, but this so much depends on casual circ.u.mstances that even many places at 15,000 feet are uncovered by snow, which as might be expected is always heaviest in the higher valleys which are least exposed to the sun's rays. The surface of the snow in many places was picturesque, being in the shape of crowded pinnacled ridges, the interstices from 4 to 5 feet deep, holding water or ice. I saw from the summit a flock of the large grouse, and at 14,000 feet, a large hare.

The peak surmounted is the lowest, and the nearest to Upper Kaloo. The granite on the west side formed a precipitous cliff of 200 to 300 feet deep.

The vegetation of the slope with small fragments, say between 14 to 15,000 feet was very scanty, a Cheiranthus, Polygonum scariosum, Papaveraceae, Phloxoides and Statice, being the only plants; and perhaps this may be a.s.sumed as having no particular plant, all those enumerated being found below.

The vegetation of the steep rugged portion, which contained many patches of snow and better soil, was more varied; in the upper parts of this a Carex, two or three Graminae, Cheiranthus, Plectranthus, Sedoides, Arenaria, Potentilla, Primula, Draboides and Bra.s.sicacea occurred. A Tanacetoid was perhaps the most common.

The most alpine forms of these were Carex, Holcoides, Sedoides, Statice densissima, and Papaveracea; but of these Papaveracea, Phloxoid, Statice densissima, Cheiranthus, and Polygonum are alone found above. Here again the effect of the proximity of a bed of snow in r.e.t.a.r.ding vegetation was most evident. Phloxoides elsewhere partly in flower, being found in full flower near one of the beds of snow.

It is curious that no green spots are found above, all the water pa.s.sing down under the soil, the swardy ravines scarcely extend beyond an elevation of 1,500 feet above the camp on Upper Kaloo.

The limit of the grey shrubby Salix may be taken as 1,000 feet above that, the other plants are precisely the same as those of other swards; Abelia extends higher than Salix.

The limit of crops is about the same, the issue of the water obviously being in relation to the extent of cultivation by irrigation. The a.s.sociated plants present no change.

_23rd_.--Cabul. Curious transformation in Carthamus was observed, either affecting the involucrum alone, when those branches that would have become flowers become clavate, covered with very dense aristate leaves, or affecting the florets which become more or less converted in the branches. In these the involucre is little altered, and the receptacle is attacked by larva. In certain of these the florets are submitted to very curious metamorphoses, each envelope remaining, but quite green, the stamina being little changed, the pistillum changed into a leaf-bearing branch, the stigmata, etc. into two leaves.

This is chiefly remarkable because of the general tardiness of change in the stamina, since it shows that the binary formation of the pistillum is a primary effect: it may be asked, if the number should be 5, why has it not reverted to its original or typical state? The calyx is not reducible to 5. The permanency of the character of aggregate flowers is here shown, as well as in Echinops, so that it is scarcely probable we shall ever meet a compositious flower solitary in the axil of an ordinary leaf.

To be examined hereafter in detail.

If wood is a descending formation, produced by leaves, how are woody tendrils to be accounted for. In the vine the ancient tendrils are perfectly woody, although this may not be true wood, yet it is truly fibrous, and I ask, from what is it formed?

The growth of young shoots is at once a proof that the whole system may be formed from ascending growth, for in many we find woody fibre complete, though not indurated, and all the leaves from which wood is said to be formed are only in a rudimentary state.

_October 2nd_.--Seh-Baba. Spiraea belloides, commonish on limestone rocks in the ravine near the road which leads from Tazeen valley to Khubur-i-Jubbur. This limestone is in thin strata; the strata are subdivided by quartzose veins, they occur generally at a dip of from 15 to 20 degrees, but are occasionally quite vertical or highly wavy, presenting evidence of concentrated force upwards. The outcrop wears an uniform aspect, and occurs to the north of the ravine. The south here and there presents sheets of rock, the overlying strata having slipped off. The strike of the strata is north and south.

Coal is said by Hatchet to be formed chiefly from the resinous principles of plants,--this would account for its appearance when burnt, which is the same as that of burnt bitumen. But resinous principles are, even when they exist, of partial extent only in plants. In good coal the whole of the vegetable substance seems to be transformed, a supposition barely compatible with Hatchet's idea.

To study this, extensive examination of coal in all degrees of formation would be necessary, beginning with the wood so curiously changed by the Brahmapootra, i.e. brown coal occurring in its sand banks, and which has a very peculiar and disagreeable odour when burning. It would also be necessary to examine how far the coal-plants exhibit vegetable structure, are they mere impressions or are they the plants themselves changed? To what extent do these agree with coal? What particular plants and what parts of these appear to have formed coal? Its fibrous structure would hint at formation from the woody system, and it is not incompatible with the _deliquescence_ of a thick layer of drift.

The plants of coal fields having been drifted, can only give us an idea of the vegetation along the natural drains of the then country, such may by no means have had _one universal character_.

The plants of the open surface of modern tropical countries being generally different from those along the beds of streams, in which situations now-a-days Equiseteae, Lycopods and Filicis are chiefly found.

Coal being drift, it follows that the plants of the coal fields can give us no information on the distribution of vegetables in those days; to gain information on this, the fossils should be in their original situation. And there again an obstacle may exist in our not being able to ascertain the height or level of that situation.

If the plants of coal fields are found to be converted into coal, then the only difference between coal shale, and coal will consist in the very small proportion of vegetable matter in the former.

The small number of coal plants, i.e. the small number of species, at once points to the supposition that fossil plants are confined to those of the most indestructible nature: here again is another sign of this in the preponderance of Ferns, which Lindley finds to be the most permanent.

Hence the preponderance of Ferns, is by no means explainable by their greatest simplicity of form, and consequent priority of formation.

CHAPTER XXII.

_From Peshawur to Lah.o.r.e_.

_October 14th_.--Peshawur.--Cucurbitaceae. The petals of cucurbita were observed in one instance united along two of the corollal sinuses to the staminal column, alternating with the smaller stamina; the processes were produced upwards into petaloid appendages.

_17th_.--Proceeded to Nowshera. As far as Pubbe the road extended chiefly through a cultivated country, thence as far as could be judged at night, over a plain country covered with coa.r.s.e gra.s.s, and here and there (whenever a sufficiently gravelly surface occurred) among the thick of _Bheir_, which is here used for fences; Mudar, AErua, Nerioides and Adhatoda occurred; _Furas_ a common tree.

_18th_.--Reached Khairabad. The same kind of country as about Nowshera, stony or sandy, with extensive tracts covered with _Bheir_, Mudar, and AErua as before, Mimosa common towards Geedur Gulli, and on it also Kureel, which appears for the first time as it was not seen about Jumrood. On to-day's march many gra.s.ses are apparent, the pale Saccharoid gra.s.s of Jugdulluck common, a species of Cynodon (given to me by Dr. Ritchie at Dhukk) very common, a Pommereullioid, a curious Schoenanthus, a Poa, all are coa.r.s.e and cover a large tract towards Geedur Gulli: Barleria spinosa appears.

Geedur Gulli is a ravine winding in and out in a curious manner among low hills at the north-west end of what is called the Afredi Spur. Mimosa very common, Kureel, Dodonaea and Edgeworthia, neither very common, but Moarcurra and Euonymus are both rather common. _Mudar_ common; some Andropogons, of which one is the same as that of the Khyber. _Bheir_ very common, also a Mimosa like the common _Babool_, but flowers unscented. Chokeys, or police stations are situated along the whole line of road to Peshawur. Adhatoda common at the entrance to Geedur Gulli where the scenery is rather pretty; Adiantum common on banks near the water; the hills of Geedur Gulli are rather thickly sprinkled with wood.

The Cabul river is here a large stream, with a moderate confined bed between high banks on which Akora and Khairabad are situated. The view of the Indus from Geedur Gulli presents a desolate look of sand, which extends over a large s.p.a.ce visible through a break in the hills to the north. The pa.s.sage of the Indus through the Attock range seen from the same point is curious; but general remarks on scenery can be of no use, except when they are founded on an intimate acquaintance with the country. The most natural course, i.e. one less impeded by mountains, would seem to be to the east instead of south.

[Diagram of Attock Range: m491.jpg]

Mulberry, Salix angustifolia, or willow, and _Buckein_, were seen at Attock. The scenery is not however bold, but on the contrary very poor compared with the defiles of the Irrawadi. The hills are low, rounded, and present no precipices of striking dimensions. An old fort situated near the junction of the rivers is a handsome looking building, but completely commanded. A large Serai or place for travellers is situated near it to the north. The water of the Indus is muddy, but presents nothing remarkable in temperature. The a.n.a.logous points between the Indus and Irrawadi consist in defiles and the want of branches for a long way above their mouths. Jackdaws were the first old acquaintances I met with on entering Peshawur; and the common kite, the Affghan one not having the same thrilling cry that the Indian one has; grey partridges are found about Nowshera; as also Kuchaloo or Yams.

_19th_.--Proceeded over the plain to Chuch and Khot-bha, winding along the Attock hill round to the fort, and pa.s.sing the Serai, and another smaller one in ruins near the plains, thence over level ground to within two miles of Bhowli, where conspicuous trees were observed, otherwise the plain is rather barren, a few _Bheirs_ and some Phoenix only occurring about villages on hills. The vegetation is the same. Chuch plain, where not cultivated, is covered with short coa.r.s.e gra.s.ses, Andropogoneae.

Among these a large-leaved Salvia occurs. The forms presented by the vegetation are however very little diversified. Mudar, a small-fruited Kochia, like that of Jallalabad; Boerhaavia very common.

Cultivation is conducted in _Bheir_ fences, and consists of Indian-corn, _Bajra_, and cotton.

From the Attock hills, the Indus is seen much divided by beds of sand, and churs or islands covered with a large purple Saccharum. Peganum continues to Attock and even extends beyond.

Water plants of Chuch, Trapa, Valisneria verticillata, and Nymphaea.

Shumshbad.--This town lies to the left of the road, one mile in the rear of my encampment.

The spines of Barleria are evidently axillary, as is seen in young branches, probably they represent the lower pair of leaves of the lateral branches, the terminal parts of which have a tendency to develop.

The spines of Mimosa belong evidently to the same exertion as the leaf; they are connate at the base, and from the centre of this hardened part, arises the leaf; they may be either the lower pinnae, or they may be _spurious_ stipulae. The leaves developed within the true ones belong to an ill-developed branch. True stipulae are leaves with a distinct origin. Spurious stipulae belong to their leaves, as is evident from their not having a distinct origin.

_20th_.--Hussun Abdul. Until we came near the Boorhan valley, the road pa.s.sed over a high, dry, sandy plain, with no cultivation, and no water, then the descent took place through picturesque raviny ground with a few isolated mounds, to a fine clear stream. The remaining part extended either along the cultivation of the Boorhan valley, or through similar raviny ground. Two streams were pa.s.sed, the last is the Hussun Abdul river.

The vegetation of the high plain continues the same. _Bheir_, Mimosa, _Kureel_, AErua, Mudar, Andropogoneae, Pommereullia, OEgilops, Salvia, and Crotalaria aphylla.

Among the ravines and thence to Hussun Abdul, a new feature presents itself in the frequency of a largish Mimosa, probably that of the Khyber pa.s.s. This forms prettily wooded scenery, the white thorned Mimosa also occurs, Moacurra none, Euonymus, _Bheir_.

About Boorhan a Ficus becomes very common, Achyranthes, Kochia fructibus parvis, Salvia, Serratuloid of Ali-Baghan and Ichardeh. Paganum common--Adhatoda and Vitex. In scenery the country is pretty, particularly after pa.s.sing the last river: a dampish spot was pa.s.sed at Bhowli: a large Acacia, Melanoxylon and Pteris were found on the river banks. Dodonaea seen on low hills near Bhowli, as also Adiantum. Started at 5 hours 40 minutes and reached at 11.30; distance at least eighteen miles.

Hussun Abdul, is a pretty place, particularly the broken ground about the sacred stream, and the tank, in which Mahaseers abound; the water beautiful, many trees occur, especially Morus, Salix and Ficus.

Zyziphus is a fine tree here, Phoenix, Khuggur, Bukkein, Ficus, and Cupressus occur.

The jackdaw, _mina_, blue and chesnut kingfisher, a noisy bird. The small kingfisher, black and white kingfisher common: Myophonus, Pomatorrhinus.

_21st_.--The chief cultivation here is _bajra_, and Zea maize. The former produces a second crop from branches; hence it is left standing after the top spike, which is the largest, is picked; vegetation chiefly Indian, very few Affghan forms remaining, those of the hills are Mimosa, Adhatoda, and Euonymus.