E. Direction of Sofaid-Koh in the distance.

F. Flagstaff in the middle of the Pa.s.s.

The ground between the dotted lines and river, on the south, is, or has been cultivated. The ground near the river on the north side is covered here and there with brown gra.s.s. About the Flagstaff, sand and short dried up gra.s.s occur.

The general character of the hills in every direction except the snowy range, is bluffly rounded, very bare, and brown, with here and there a shrub.

That which Burnes calls Noorgil, is the range of Kareaz, and is distinct from Koonur. Kashgur lies beyond the snowy range.

The inhabitants of the mountains, like those of Lalpoor, wear sandals made of the fibres of Chamaerops, which is common: one plant of Ephedra used _for snuff_?

_3rd_.--Proceeded to one mile beyond Ali-Musjid. The ascent commences immediately where the _Choky_ is seen from the camp, by a very good road cut out of slate rock; the rocks are steep on both sides, and very zig- zag; a short partial descent in one place occurs to a small pool of water. From the _Choky_, a descent takes place by a similar road for perhaps two miles, until the ravine which we left at camp is turned; this is thence followed, occasionally leaving it where the road is bad and runs through low rugged hills. The road then after pa.s.sing some of the old ruins opens out into a s.p.a.ce with cultivation. Close to this is the highest spot of the pa.s.s, surrounded by low hills, none higher than 500 feet. Cultivation occurs especially at Lal-Ghurry Beg, a s.p.a.ce of some size, containing several villages, of the usual Khyberry form, namely, surrounded by low, quadrangular walls, with a thin square tower and very broadly projecting eaves. A short distance from its summit, just after pa.s.sing the villages, and before entering the ravine which leads us to our present camp is a Khyberry tower, built on a fine Bactrian tope, which is nearly half ruined; on the top of this a dome of good proportions is built on a double-terraced foundation.

This gives a rude idea of what the tope was originally, now half the dome has fallen down.

[A Khyberry tower: m426.jpg]

The entrance to the ravine gradually becomes narrower, the bed is stony, very winding, and narrow. Bold precipices of limestone cliffs ascend on either side of Sir-i-Chushme; then a little below, very copious springs issue from limestone. The temperature of the princ.i.p.al spring is 75 degrees; it contains abundance of fish--a loach and cyprinoid. Pa.s.sed some ruined fortifications on the right, leading down to water, evidently _kafir_ works; then we enter a narrow but short gorge, occupied by the stream; a few more turns and you come on Ali-Musjid. No change occurs in the vegetation, bare rocks at the summit of which the Bar. stood at 26.72. Andropogons and Artemisiae are the chief plants.

In the gorge downwards, Acacia occurs in abundance, with Adhatoda, and otherwise the shrubs of Lundyakhana occur in abundance, and Adiantum about the spring.

After pa.s.sing the fort, the rocks open out into a ravine, with low undulated hills on every side, covered with the usual vegetation; Astragalus one species.

At Lal-Ghurry Beg, one Khinjuck tree, Elaeagnus, occurred; and gra.s.s in very small stacks, well pressed and covered with a thatch of bushes and a layer of dirt.

There is excellent fishing in the stream. Loaches, Perilamps, and especially an Oreinus? swarming at Sir-i-Chushme, and taking worms very greedily.

No forests whatever visible in this direction; the arborescent vegetation being confined to scattered and small trees.

_5th_.--We halted near Jumrood, after a march of ten miles and one furlong. This place is situated at the mouth of the pa.s.s, within sight of the Seikh camp at Jumrood. Marched down to the ghat, which is generally speaking narrow and very strong, opening out here and there, into easier parts extending down the stream all the way; this stream loses itself suddenly, but after a little distance it is replaced by another from the right, where ravines enter: here the pa.s.s is well adapted for pillage, elsewhere the sides are so steep, that robbers could not dispose of their plunder. At the mouth, the pa.s.s opens out into a good breadth, with an even, small, shingly bottom. At Kuddun the Seikh troops were drawn up to compliment the C. in C., one regiment met us shortly before to protect the baggage. Maize cultivated. At the mouth, the Khyber is more difficult than any other pa.s.s, except the Bolan: perhaps it is much narrower than that, except just above Sir-i-Bolan.

No change in vegetation, one or two new plants occurred, viz. a l.a.b.i.ata, and a treelet, foliis linearibus oppositis, Jasminacea aspectu, Baloot, Vitex common, Salix, and shrubs as before, Veronica, etc.

The Khyber mountains viewed from the mouth of the pa.s.s are brown, and dotted with peculiar looking trees.

_6th_.--Proceeded six and a half miles to near the ruins of an old tope; first, down the nullah, then by the fort of Futtygurh, a Hindoostanee mud fort with high parapets, two lines of works, and a _pucka_ citadel with embrasures for guns on a commanding mound: thence we pa.s.sed over a gentle slope with a good many scattered _Bheirs_, _Kureels_, AErua, Mudar, etc.

to camp, where the ground is very rough and stony, abundant water obtained from a cut with sheets of maize cultivation. Fossil sh.e.l.ls, Pterocles, found in arenaceous limestone (Durand).

_7th_.--To Peshawur, eight and a half miles, over a sandy plain; road bad, intersected with cuts and ravines; three ca.n.a.ls had to be crossed by small bridges which occasioned a good deal of delay to the camels. Pa.s.sed the Seikh lines, between the fort and north face of town, and encamped on east face opposite the Governor's house: three gibbets were pa.s.sed, with twelve persons hanging from them, some of old date.

In the evening we had a gay party at M. Avitabili's, who is a fine looking man, with an intelligent Italian countenance.

In a room gaudily decorated and painted, was the following very appropriate motto--

Donec eris felix multos numerabis amicos.

Tempora si fuerunt nubila, solus eris.

If this was true in Rome, and is true in Europe, to what extent does its truth not reach in this country. In the evening we were entertained with dancing and fireworks; excellent dinner and admirable bread.

_14th_.--To-day the atmosphere is hazy, but the snowy range is not topped with clouds. It is curious enough that the part which is most exposed to our view, and which bears about north-east, is generally clouded throughout the hotter parts of the day, while apparently equally high peaks in other directions remain clear.

It is curious that in Khora.s.san remarkably few climbing plants occur, and of these, the chief form is Cuscuta.

Botany here at this season is a non-ent.i.ty, in the marsh close to the fort, there occur some few plants, the chief European forms being Veronica. Ranunculus sceleratus is now coming into flower, Typha angustifolia abounds, with Arundo, also Sparganium, Sium, Butomus trigonifolius common; otherwise Cyperaceae, _Epilobium out of_ _season_! Ranunculus aquaticus is most abundant; two species of Chara, or rather 1 Chara, and 1 Nitella, the last a beautiful species, Marsilea in profusion, Azolla common, Lemna two or three species, one _new_, a floating Marchantiacia, Nelumbium occurs, but only as a cultivated plant.

Of two Boreal, or European forms found in sub-tropical countries, that form is the most northern which flowers, etc. in the coldest season, hence Veronica and Ranunculus are more northern than _Epilobium_ in this particular district. The most elevational plant at Cabul is Cardaminoidea, floribus luteis, this flowers at high alt.i.tudes in August and September, and at Cabul shows no symptom of flowering even in October; it is there a winter plant? The same is true of Hippuris, which to flower at Cabul requires a greater degree of cold than is obtainable during the summer months.

What I have said of Epilobium above, is true of Typha and Arundo, both now pa.s.sed flowering, and both found in India, to a considerable extent.

Royle's idea of the comparatively greater extent of distribution of water plants is not I think correct, in the sense he seems to entertain it; to be so, the species should be the same, which they are certainly not. It is only with pre-eminently aquatic forms that the annual temperature can be more equalised than obtains with strictly terrestrial plants. The humidity which may appear connected with the rapid evaporation in these countries, and which obtains? in the vicinity of all bodies of water, may account for the appearance here of Arundo, etc. All genuine aquatic types have leaves involute in vernation?

The least valuable of all northern forms, are those a.s.sociated with cultivation, especially if they be annuals, because in the first place they may be acclimated species, a circ.u.mstance of great importance; and in the second, because if annual, they are confined to the cold season.

All such forms have probably migrated into these countries, they have come from the westward: this shows us why at almost equal elevations they are most common, the nearer we approach to the elevated regions towards the west, because it is self-evident that the nearer we approach the regions whence they have migrated, the more abundant and diversified will the migrating plants be, only particular species having the power of extending the range of migration.

When all the Indian plants. .h.i.therto met with, have been tabulated; when all their respective heights at which they have been found have been determined; when their more strictly geographical sites have been fixed; when we have some data as to the quant.i.ty of humidity pervading their localities; then, and not till then, shall we be able to legislate for the geography of Indian botany.

The Botanist who travels without the means of determining these points, destroys half the value of his collections.

_December 16th_.--Yesterday was very raw and cloudy, to-day clear as usual, towards 1 P.M. a strong north-east wind occurred for a short time as usual, because once or twice before, it occurred after threatening weather.

_Rationale_.--It blows from the nearest snow to supply the rarefied air in the valley heated by the sun, even now tolerably powerful; it blows for some days so long as a vacuum is formed, and discontinues when clouds again appear; hardly so, as it before only blew for three or four days, although several more elapsed before clouds re-appeared: it may however be dependent on each fresh fall of snow in the hills.

_26th_.--Cloudy morning, forenoon fine, clear and calm.

Mosses are the a.n.a.logues of Zoophytes; these a.n.a.logies are to be looked for in the most striking and most constant parts of the organization of the divisions of nature.

Marchantiaceae are the representatives of radiate animals, another reason why Jungermanniaceae are to be separated from them.

Hence, Radiata, = Marchantiaceae.

" Zoophyta, = Musci.

I am quite convinced that the true subordinate groups of Acotyledones are far from being discovered.

Are the sheaths found on certain radicles strictly confined to monocotyledonous plants. There is this certain about them, that they depend on the presence of vascular tissue, from which the radicles or the divisions of each root originate: see young Hyacinth roots, grown in water.

Although the sheaths cannot exist without a positive cuticle, their existence does not depend so much on its presence as on the direction of the adhesive powers of its component parts: witness certain forms of Marchantiaceae, and the v.a.g.i.n.ate forms, as Azolla, Lemna, etc. Also the sheath may not have adhesive powers at its apex to prevent the escape of the radical at that point: witness Hyacinth roots? We may imagine a case in which the primary radicle may be without a sheath, while its divisions shall have them, this depending on the want of adhesion of the cuticle over the original one.

The emerged and immersed leaves of plants are well worthy of examination, since Microphytum proves that stomata do not depend on the presence of a cuticle as Brongniart supposes: their presence is united with, or allied to an amount of density in the cellular tissue, sufficient to prevent the due aeration of the inner cellules, without direct communication with the atmosphere. Vide Musci!! Hence the inner tubes of the leaves of the generality of aquatic plants, (exception Eriocaulon fluitans.)

What is the cause of the plurality of radicles in certain species of Lemna, and their blank in others? It will be necessary on this point to examine well the sheaths of Azolla, and to look at the Mergui AEschynanthus.

The formation of Affghanistan is very curious: it consists of a wide extent of country, variously elevated steppes being separated by ridges usually very accessible, generally isolated. The mountainous part varies as to its formation, but there is no variety in the declivities and acclivities forming the lower elevations, which are composed of conglomerate; nor is there much in the usually narrow strip at the lowest portion of each steppe or valley, which is very generally the only cultivatable portion.

In the Khyber ghat the ridges are either of limestone or slaty rocks, between which conglomerate occurs of various thicknesses; this being dependent on the angle of the mountains forming the sides of the ghat: it is from this conglomerate in such places consisting usually of a loose texture that the very excellent roads (for mountainous pa.s.ses) are naturally made by the draining streams, which are only periodical. The conglomerate consists of water-worn stones of all sizes, even boulders are not unfrequent, yet the wearing is such as occurs in courses now filling the beds of torrents. The conglomerate increases in density and adhesion towards Lalpoor, and in many places is exceedingly hard.

Whatever the country may have been previously, one might explain its present appearance by supposing it to have consisted of a tolerably level extent of conglomerate, with here and there a strip of soil in the lowest part of each portion, and that the elevation of the mountain ridges was of subsequent occurrence: this would account for the formation of the lower slopes, and the frequent isolation of small eminences of the same character as the neighbouring mountains. It will account for the appearance of the conglomerate in every ravine until the top of the culminating point is reached.

As the mountains were elevated, portions of conglomerate would be detached, and these resting again on all suitable places, would account for the existence of conglomerate on certain parts which are flatter than usual.