CHAPTER XVIII

THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES: ITALY

Poets: Metastasio, Goldoni, Alfieri, Monti, Leopardi. Prose Writers: Silvio Pellico, Fogazzaro, etc.

LITERARY AWAKENING.--After a long decadence, Italy, less overwhelmed politically than previously, reawoke about 1750. Once more poets came forward: Metastasio, author of tragedies and operas; Goldoni, a very witty and gay comic poet; Alfieri who revived Italian tragedy, which had been languishing and silent since Maffei, and who, like Voltaire in France, and with greater success, established a philosophical and political tribune; Foscolo, sufficiently feeble in tragedy but very touching and eloquent in _The Tombs_, inspired by Young's _Night Thoughts_ and _The Letters of Jacob Ortis_, an interesting novelist and eloquently impa.s.sioned patriot; Monti, versatile and master of all recantations according to his own interests, but a very pure writer and not without brilliance in his highly diversified poems.

EMINENT PROSE WRITERS.--Italy could show eminent prose writers, such as those jurisprudent philanthropists Filangieri and Beccaria; critics and literary historians like Tiraboschi.

NINETEENTH CENTURY.--In the nineteenth century may first be found among poets that great poet, the unhappy Leopardi, the bard of suffering, of sorrow, and of despair; Carducci, a brilliant orator, imbued with vigorous pa.s.sions; Manzoni, lyricist, dramatist, vibrating with patriotic enthusiasm, affecting in his novel _The Betrothal_, which became popular in every country in Europe. In prose, Silvio Pellico equally moved Europe to tears by his book _My Prisons_, wherein he narrated the experiences of his nine years of captivity at the hands of Austria, and found his agreeable tragedy of _Francesca da Rimini_ welcomed with flattering appreciation. Philosophy was specially represented by Gioberti, author of _The Treatise on the Supernatural_, and journalism by Giordani, eloquent, at times with grace and ease, and at others with harshness and violence.

THE MODERNS.--As these words were written came the news of the death of the ill.u.s.trious novelist Fogazzaro. Gabriel d'Annunzio, poet and ultra-romantic novelist, and Mathilde Serao, an original novelist, pursue their ill.u.s.trious careers.

CHAPTER XIX

THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES: SPAIN

The Drama still Brilliant: Moratin. Historians and Philosophers, Novelists, Orators.

THE DRAMA. Since the middle of the seventeenth century, approximately, Spain has exercised less literary influence than in the preceding centuries. Nevertheless Spanish literature was not extinct; it was in the drama more especially that it was manifest. Candamo, Canizares, and Zamora all illumined the stage. Candamo devoted himself to the historical drama; his masterpiece in this type was _The Slave in Golden Chains_; Canizares, powerful satirist, displayed the comic spirit in his comedies of character; Zamora manipulated the comedy of intrigue with remarkable dexterity. Then came Vincente de la Huerta, skilful in combining the type of French tragedy with something of the ancient dramatic national genius; then Leandro Moratin (called Moratin the Younger to distinguish him from his father Nicholas), very imitative, no doubt, of Moliere, but in himself highly gifted, and of whose works can still be read with pleasure _The Old Man and the Young Girl_, _The New Comedy on the Coffee_, _The Female Hypocrite_, etc. He also wrote lyrical poems and sonnets. He lived long in France, where he became impregnated with Gallic cla.s.sical literature.

PROSE.--Stronger and more brilliant at that period than the poetry, the prose was represented by Father Florez, author of _Ecclesiastical Spain_; by the Marquis de San Phillipo, author of the _War of Succession in Spain_; by Antonio de Solis, author of _The Conquest of Mexico_. In fiction there was the interesting Father Isla, a Jesuit, who gave a clever imitation of the _Don Quixote_ of Cervantes in his _History of the Preacher Friar Gerund_. He was well read and patriotic. He was convinced that Le Sage had taken all his _Gil Blas_ from various Spanish authors, and he published a translation of his novel under the t.i.tle: _The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santiago, stolen from Spain and adopted in France by M. Le Sage, restored to their country and native tongue by a jealous Spaniard who will not endure being laughed at_. Another Jesuit (and it may be noticed that Spanish Jesuits of the seventeenth century often displayed a very liberal and modern mind), Father Feijoo, wrote a kind of philosophical dictionary ent.i.tled _Universal Dramatic Criticism_, a review of human opinions which was satirical, humorous, and often extremely able. The historian Antonio de Solis, who was also a reasonably capable dramatist, produced a _History of the Conquest of South America Known under the name of New Spain_, in a chartered style that was very elegant and even too elegant. Jovellanos wrote much in various styles.

Among others he wrote one fine tragedy, _Pelagia_; a comedy presenting clever contrasts, ent.i.tled _The Honorable Criminal_; a ma.s.s of studies on the past of Spain, economic treatises, satires, and pamphlets. Engaged in all the historical and political vicissitudes of his country, he expired miserably in 1811, after having been alternately in exile and at the head of affairs.

ROMANTICISM.--In the nineteenth century Spanish romanticism was brought back in dignified poetic style by Angel Saavedra, Jose Zorilla, Ventura de la Vega, Ramon Campoamor, Esp.r.o.nceda. The latter especially counts among the great literary Spaniards, for he was poet and novelist, who wrote _The Student of Salamanca_ (Don Juan), _The Devil World_ (a kind of Faust), lyrical poems, and an historical novel, _Sancho Saldano_.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.--In drama, _Quintana_ also produced a _Pelagia_; the Duke of Rivas a _Don Alvaro_, which enjoyed an immediate success; Zorilla a _Don Juan_ entirely novel in conception; Martinez de la Rose tragedies, some in the cla.s.sic vein, others with modern intrigue and comedies; Gutierrez, by his _Foundling_, attracted the attention of librettists of French operas; Breton de los Herreros wrote sparkling comedies, the multiplicity of which suggest Scribe. In prose, Fernan Caballero was a fertile novelist and an attentive and accurate painter of manner. Trueba (who was also an elegant poet) was an affecting idyllic novelist. Emilio Castelar, the Lamartine of Spain as he was called by Edmond About, was a splendid orator, thrown by the chances of political life for one hour at the head of national affairs, who raised himself to the highest rank in the admiration of his contemporaries by his novels: for instance, _The Sister of Charity_ and his works on philosophical history and the history of art, _Civilisation in the First Centuries of Christianity_, _The Life of Byron_, _Souvenirs of Italy_, etc. In our day, there have been numerous distinguished authors (and for us, at least, out of the crowd stands forth the dramatist Jose Echegaray), who carry on the glorious tradition of Spanish literature.

CHAPTER XX

RUSSIAN LITERATURE

Middle Ages. Some Epic Narratives. Renaissance in the Seventeenth Century. Literature Imitative of the West in the Eighteenth Century.

Original Literature in the Nineteenth Century.

THE MIDDLE AGES.--Russia possessed a literature even in the Middle Ages.

In the eleventh century the metropolitan Hilarion wrote a discourse on the Old and the New Testament. In the twelfth century, the _Chronicle_ that is said to be by _Nestor_ is the first historical monument of Russia. At the same period Vladimir Monomaque, Prince of Kief, who devoted his life to fighting with all his neighbours, left his son an autobiographic _instruction_, which is very interesting for the light it throws on the events and, especially, on the customs of his day. At the same time the hegumen (abbot) Daniel left an account of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In the thirteenth century (probably) another Daniel, Daniel the prisoner, wrote from his distant place of exile to his prince a supplicatory letter, which is astonishing because in it is found a remarkable and wholly unexpected degree of literary talent. In the thirteenth or fourteenth century two epic pieces, _The Lay of the Battle of Igor_ and _The Zadonstchina_, of which it is uncertain which imitated the other, alike present vigorous and vivid accounts of battles. In the fifteenth or sixteenth century there is a didactic work, _The Domostroi_, which is a moral treatise, a handbook of domestic economy, a manual of gardening, and a cookery book, etc. The Tzar Ivan the Terrible (sixteenth century) was a dexterous diplomatist and a precise, nervous, and ironical writer. He left highly curious letters.

RENAISSANCE.--Kutochikine (seventeenth century), who was minister in his own land, then disgraced and exiled in Sweden, wrote an extremely interesting book on the habits of his contemporaries. The "Renaissance,"

if it may be so termed, that is, the contact between the Russian spirit and Western genius, occurred in the eighteenth century. Prince Kantemir, Russian amba.s.sador in London, who knew Montesquieu, Maupertuis, the Abbe Guasco, etc., wrote satires in the manner of Horace and of Boileau.

Trediakowski took on himself to compose a very tedious _Telemachidus_, but he knew how to unravel the laws of Russian metre and to write odes which at least were indicative of the right direction.

LOMONOSOV.--Lomonosov is regarded as the real father of Russian literature, as the Peter the Great of literature--a great man withal, engineer, chemist, professor, grammarian. Regarding him solely as a literary man, he made felicitous essays in tragedy, lyrical poetry, epic poetry, polished the Russian versification, established its grammar, and imparted a powerful impulse in a mult.i.tude of directions.

CREATION OF THE DRAMA.--Soumarokoff founded the Russian drama. He was manager of the first theatre opened in St. Petersburg (1756). In the French vein he wrote tragedies, comedies, fables, satires, and epigrams.

He corresponded with Voltaire. The latter wrote to him in 1769: "Sir, your letter and your works are a great proof that genius and taste pertain to all lands. Those who said that poetry and music belonged only to temperate climates were deeply in error. If climate were so potent, Greece would still produce Platos and Anacreons, just as she produces the same fruits and flowers; Italy would have Horaces, Virgils, Ariostos, and Ta.s.sos.... The sovereigns who love the arts change the climates; they cause roses to bud in the midst of snows. That is what your incomparable monarch has done. I could believe that the letters with which she has honoured me came from Versailles and yours from one of my colleagues in the Academy.... Over me you possess one prodigious advantage: I do not know a word of your language and you are completely master of mine.... Yes, I regard Racine as the best of our tragic poets.... He is the only one who has treated love tragically; for before him Corneille had only expressed that pa.s.sion well in _The Cid_, and _The Cid_ is not his. Love is ridiculous or insipid in nearly all his other works. I think as you do about Quinault; he is a great man in his own way. He would not have written the _Art of Poetry_, but Boileau would not have written _Armida_. I entirely agree with what you write about Moliere and of the tearful comedy which, to the national disgrace, has succeeded to the only real comic type brought to perfection by the inimitable Moliere. Since Regnard, who was endowed with a truly comic genius and who alone came near Moliere, we have only had monstrosities.... That, sir, is the profession of faith you have asked of me." This letter is quoted, despite its errors, because it forms, as it were, _a preface to Russian literature_, and also a patent of n.o.bility granted to this literature.

CATHERINE II.--The Empress wrote _in Russian_ advice as to the education of her grandson, very piquant comedies, and review articles. Von Vizin, a comic author, was the first to look around and to depict the custom of his country, which means that he was the earliest humorous national writer. The cla.s.sic works of Von Vizin were _The Brigadier_ and _The Minor_. Whilst pictures of contemporaneous manners, they were also pleadings in favour of a reformed Russia against the Russia that existed before Peter the Great, which still in part subsisted, as was only natural. He made a journey to France and it will be seen from his correspondence that he brought back a highly flattering impression.

RADISTCHEF.--Radistchef was the first Russian political writer. Under the pretext of a _Voyage from Petersburg to Moscow_, he attacked serfdom, absolute government, even religion, for which he was condemned to death and exiled to Siberia. He was pardoned later on by Paul I, but soon after committed suicide. He was verbose, but often really eloquent.

ORATORS AND POETS.--The preacher Platon, whose real name was Levchine, was an orator full of sincerity, unction, and sometimes of real power. He was religious tutor to the hereditary Grand Duke, son of Catherine II.

Another preacher, and his successor at the siege of Moscow, Vinogradsky, was likewise a really great orator. It was he who, after the French retreat from Russia, delivered the funeral oration on the soldiers killed at Borodino. Ozerov was a cla.s.sical tragedy writer after the manner of Voltaire, and somewhat hampered thereby. Batiouchkov, although he lived right into the middle of the nineteenth century, is already a cla.s.sic. He venerated and imitated the writers of antiquity; he was a devout admirer of Tibullus, and wrote elegies which are quite exquisite. Krylov was a fabulist: a dexterous delineator of animals and a delicate humourist.

Frenchmen and Italians have been alike fascinated by him, and his works have often been translated; until the middle of the nineteenth century he enjoyed European popularity.

THE GOLDEN AGE: PUSHKIN.--The true Russian nineteenth century and its golden age must be dated from Pushkin. He wrote from his earliest youth.

He was an epic poet, novelist, and historian. His princ.i.p.al poems were _Ruslan and Liudmila_, _Eugene Onegin_, _Poltava_; his most remarkable historical essay was _The Revolt of Pugachev_. He possessed a fertile and vigorous imagination, which he developed by continual and enthusiastic study of Byron. He did not live long enough either for his own fame or for the welfare of Russian literature, being killed in a duel at the age of thirty-eight. Merimee translated much by Pushkin. The French lyric stage has mounted one of his most delicate inspirations, _La Rousalka_ (the water nymph). He was quite conscious of his own genius and, freely imitating the _Exegi monumentum_ of Horace, as will be seen, he wrote: "I have raised to myself a monument which no human hand has constructed....

I shall not entirely perish ... the sound of my name shall permeate through vast Russia.... For long I shall be dear to my race because my lyre has uttered good sentiments, because, in a brutal age, I have vaunted liberty and preached love for the down-trodden. Oh, my Muse, heed the commands of G.o.d, fear not offence, claim no crown; receive with equal indifference eulogy and calumny, but never dispute with fools."

LERMONTOV.--Lermontov was not inferior to his friend Pushkin, whom he closely resembled. Like him he drew inspiration from the romantic poets of the West. He loved the East, and his short, glorious suggestions came to him from the Caucasus. Among his finest poetic works may be cited _The Novice Ismael Bey_, _The Demon_, _The Song of the Tzar Ivan_. He wrote a novel, perhaps autobiographical, ent.i.tled _A Hero of Our Own Time_, the hero of which is painted in highly Byronic colours.

GOGOL.--Russian taste was already veering to the epic novel or epopee in prose, of which Gogol was the most ill.u.s.trious representative until Tolstoy. He was highly gifted. In him the feeling for Nature was acutely active, and recalling his descriptions of the plains of the Crimea, its rivers and steppes, he must be regarded as the Rousseau and Chateaubriand of Russia. Further, he was a close student of village habits, and a painter in astonishing hues. He eminently possessed the sense of epic grandeur, and added a sarcastic vein of delightful irony. His _Taras Bulba_, _King of the Dwarfs_, _History of a Fool_, and _Dead Souls_, have the force of arresting realism, his _Revisor_ (inspector of finances) is a caustic comedy which has been a cla.s.sic not only in Russia but in France, where it was introduced in translation by Merimee.

TURGENEV.--Turgenev, less epical than Gogol, was also studious of local habits and dexterous in describing them. He began with exquisite _Huntsman's Tales_ impregnated with truth and precision, as well as intimate and picturesque details; then he extended his scope and wrote novels, but never at great length, and therefore suited to the exigencies or habits of Western Europe (such as _Smoke_). He had selected Paris as his abode, and he mixed with the greatest thinkers of the day: Taine, Flaubert, Edmond About. In the eyes of his fellow-countrymen he became ultimately too Western and too Parisian. His was a delicate, sensitive soul, p.r.o.ne to melancholy and perpetually dreaming. He had a cult of form in which he went so far as to make it a sort of scruple and superst.i.tion.

TOLSTOY.--Tolstoy, so recently dead, was a great epic poet in prose, a very powerful and affecting novelist, and in some measure an apostle. He began with _Boyhood Adolescence and Youth_, in itself very curious and particularly valuable because of the idea it conveys of the life of the lords of the Russian soil, and for its explanation of the formation of the soul and genius of Tolstoy; then came _The Cossacks_, full of magnificent descriptions of the Caucasus and of interesting scenes of military and rural life; subsequently that masterpiece of Tolstoy's, _War and Peace_, narratives dealing with the war of Napoleon with Russia and of the subsequent period of peaceful and healthy rural life. It is impossible to adequately admire the power of narration and descriptive force, the fertility of incidents, characterisations, and dramatic moments, the art or rather the gift of portraiture, and finally, the grandeur and moral elevation, in fact, all the qualities, not one of which he appeared to lack, of which Tolstoy gave proof and which he displayed in this immense history of the Russian soul at the commencement of the nineteenth century; for it is thus that it is meet to qualify this n.o.ble creation. The only a.n.a.logy is with _Les Miserables_ of Victor Hugo, and it must be admitted that despite its incomparable merits, the French work is the more unequal. _Anna Karenina_ is only a novel in the vein of French novels, but very profound and remarkable for its a.n.a.lysis of character and also impa.s.sioned and affecting, besides having considerable moral range. _The Kreutzer Sonata_ is a romance rather than a novel, but cruelly beautiful because it exposes with singular clairvoyance the misery of a soul impotent for happiness. _Resurrection_ shows that mournful and impa.s.sioned pity felt by Tolstoy for the humble and the "fallen," to use the phrase of Pushkin; it realises a lofty dramatic beauty. Tolstoy, in a thousand pamphlets or brief works, preached to his own people and to mankind the strict morality of Christ, charity, renunciation, peace at all price, without taking into account the necessities of social life; and he denounced, as had Jean Jacques Rousseau, the culpability of art and literature, being resigned to recognising his own works as condemnable. His was the soul of an exalted poet and a lofty poetical mind; from a poet must not be demanded practical common sense or that feeling for reality which is demanded, often unavailingly, from a statesman.

DOSTOEVSKY.--Dostoevsky, with a tragic genius as great as that of Tolstoy, may be said to have been more restricted because he exclusively delineated the unhappy, the miserable, and those defeated in life. He knew them personally because, after being arrested in 1849 at the age of fifty for the crime of belonging to a secret society, he spent years in the convict prisons of Siberia. Those miseries he describes in the most exact terms and with heart-rending eloquence in _Buried Alive: Ten Years in Siberia_, and in the remarkable novel ent.i.tled _Crime and Punishment_.

He has lent invaluable aid in the propagation of two sentiments which have created some stir in the West and which, a.s.suredly, we desire to foster: namely, "the religion of human suffering" and the cult of "expiation."

CHAPTER XXI

POLISH LITERATURE

At an Early Date Western Influence sufficiently Potent. Sixteenth Century Brilliant; Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries highly Cultured; Nineteenth Century Notably Original.

WESTERN INFLUENCE--Widely different from Russian literature, much more Western, based more on Greek and Latin culture, Polish literature holds high rank in the histories of European literature. Christians from the tenth century, the Poles knew from this epoch religious songs written by monks, in the vulgar tongue. To this is due the possession of the _Bogarodzica_, a religious and bellicose song dedicated to the Virgin mother of G.o.d, which is even now comprehensible, so little has the Polish language changed. All through the Middle Ages, literary historians can only find chronicles written sometimes in Latin, sometimes in the native language. Under the influence of the universities, and also of the parliamentary rule, the language acquired alike more consistency and more authority in the fifteenth century, whilst the sixteenth was the golden literary epoch of the Poles. There were poets, and even great poets, as well as orators and historians. Such was Kochanowski, very much a Western, who lived some time in Italy, also seven years in France, and was a friend of Ronsard. His writings were epical, lyrical, tragical, satirical, and especially elegiacal. He is a cla.s.sic in Poland.

Grochowski left a volume of diversified poems, hymns on various texts of Thomas a Kempis, _The Nights_ of Thorn, etc. Martin Bielski, who was an historian too, but in Latin, left two political satires on the condition of Poland, and his son Joachim wrote a history of his native land in Polish.