To-day beaver are apparently extinct over the greater portion of the area which they formerly occupied, and are scarce over the remaining inhabited area. Scattered colonies are found in the Rocky Mountains and in the mountains of the Pacific Coast, and there are localities in Canada where they are still fairly abundant. In many places in the Grand Canon of the Colorado they are common. A few are found in Michigan and Maine. Some years ago a few brooks in the Adirondacks were successfully colonized with these useful animals. They have reappeared in Pennsylvania, and there probably are straggling beaver all over the United States which, if protected, would increase.

There is a growing sentiment in favor of allowing the beaver to multiply. In 1877 Missouri pa.s.sed a law protecting these animals; so did Maine in 1885 and Colorado in 1899. Other States to the total number of twenty-four have also legislated for their protection. The Canadian government has also pa.s.sed protective laws. A noticeable increase has already occurred in a few localities. Beaver multiply rapidly under protection, as is shown in the National Parks of both Canada and the United States.

As Others See Him

For three hundred years the beaver has been a popular subject for discussion. Fabulous accounts have been given concerning his works, and that which he has done has been exaggerated beyond recognition.

Many of the descriptions of him are grotesque, and many accounts of his works are uncanny. His tail has been made to do the work of a pile-driver, and some of the old accounts credit him with driving stakes into the ground that were as large as a man's thigh and five or six feet long. Stories have been told that his tail was used as a trowel in plastering the house and the dam. A few writers have stated that he lived in a three-story lodge. More than a century ago Audubon called attention to the enormous ma.s.s of fabrications that had been written concerning this animal, and in 1771 Samuel Hearne of the Hudson's Bay Company denounced a beaver nature-faker in the following terms: "The compiler of the Wonders of Nature and Art seems to have not only collected all the fictions into which other writers on the subject have run, but has so greatly improved on them that little remains to be added to his account of the beaver beside a vocabulary of their language, a code of their laws, and a sketch of their religion, to make it the most complete natural history of that animal."

One might read almost the entire ma.s.s of printed matter concerning the beaver without obtaining correct information about his manners and customs or an accurate description of his works and without getting at the real character of this animal. The actual life and character of the beaver, however, the work which he does, the unusual things which he has accomplished, are really more interesting and place the beaver on a higher plane than do all the fict.i.tious tales and exaggerated accounts written concerning him.

Mr. Lewis H. Morgan in his "American Beaver and his Works" says: "No other animal has attracted a larger share of attention or acquired by his intelligence a more respectable position in the public estimation.

Around him are the dam, the lodge, the burrow, the tree-cutting, and the artificial ca.n.a.l, each testifying to his handiwork, and affording us an opportunity to see the application as well as the results of his mental and physical powers. There is no animal below man in the entire range of Mammalia which offers to our investigation such a series of works, or presents such remarkable material for study and ill.u.s.tration of animal psychology."

Mr. Morgan was for years a capable and painstaking student of the beaver. That which he has written is so important a contribution concerning the beaver that no one interested in this animal can afford to be unacquainted with it. In the preface of his book he says: "I took up the subject as I did fishing, for summer recreation. In the year 1861, I had occasion to visit the Red River Settlement in the Hudson's Bay Territory, and in 1862, to ascend the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains, which enabled me to compare the works of the beaver in these localities with those on Lake Superior. At the outset I had no expectation of following up the subject year after year, but was led on, by the interest which it awakened, until the materials collected seemed to be worth arranging for publication."

The greatest admirers of the beaver are those who know him best. He bears acquaintance. This cannot be had by merely looking at the animal, nor by sympathetically studying his monumental works. These works will of course impress one, but they give one at best only a traveler's impression. Long and repeated visits to the colony in its busy season appear to be the best way to get at the character of the beaver. The cubical contents of a dam may not even suggest the obstacles overcome in its construction, the labor of getting the material, the dangers avoided, the numerous unexpected difficulties overcome. Five cords of green poles and limbs in a neat pile in the pond by the beaver house may tell that the harvest has been gathered, but it does not tell that a part of this harvest may have been gathered a mile away and skillfully transported to the house with difficulty and amid dangers. A part of the food-pile may have been dragged laboriously uphill and along trails which required months of labor to open; or numerous pieces in this pile may have been floated through a ca.n.a.l of such magnitude that a generation was required to construct it. Altogether, harvest-gathering is interesting and heroic work on the part of the beaver. In doing it he takes large risks, for the harvest is usually gathered far from the house and on the dangerous beaver frontier.

For more than a quarter of a century I have been a friendly visitor to his colonies, in which I have lingered long and lovingly. That he makes mistakes is certain, but that he is an intelligent, reasoning animal I have long firmly believed. As I said in "Wild Life on the Rockies,"--"I have so often seen him change his plans so wisely and meet emergencies so promptly and well that I can think of him only as a reasoner."

As evidence that he sometimes reasons, it may be cited that he occasionally endeavors to fell trees in a given direction; that he often avoids cutting those entangled at the top; that sometimes he will, on a windy day, fell trees on the leeward side of a grove; that he commonly avoids felling trees in the heart of a grove, but cuts on the outskirts of it. He occasionally dams a stream, digs a ca.n.a.l, leads water to a dry place, and there forms and fills a reservoir and establishes a home. Often his house is built by a spring and thus the danger from thick ice avoided. These are some of the reasons for my believing him to be intelligent.

Morgan speaks of the beaver as "endowed with a mental principle which performs for him the same office that the human mind does for man,"

and says, "The works of the beaver afford many interesting ill.u.s.trations of his intelligence and reasoning capacity," also, "In the capacity thereby displayed of adapting their works to the ever-varying circ.u.mstances in which they find themselves placed instead of following blindly an invariable type, some evidence of possession on their part of _free intelligence_ is undoubtedly furnished."

Mr. George J. Romanes has the following opinion of the beaver: "Most remarkable among rodents for instinct and intelligence, unquestionably stands the beaver. Indeed there is no animal--not even excepting the ants and bees--where instinct has risen to a higher level of far-reaching adaptation to certain constant conditions of environment, or where faculties, undoubtedly instinctive, are more puzzlingly wrought up with faculties no less undoubtedly intelligent.... It is truly an astonishing fact that animals should engage in such vast architectural labors with what appears to be the deliberate purpose of securing, by such artificial means, the special benefits that arise from their high engineering skill. So astonishing, indeed, does this fact appear, that as sober minded interpreters of fact we would fain look for some explanation which would not necessitate the inference that these actions are due to any intelligent appreciation, either of the benefits that arise from labor, or of the hydrostatic principles to which this labor so clearly refers."

Mr. Alexander Majors, originator of the Pony Express, who lived a long, alert life in the wilds, pays the beaver the following peculiar tribute in his "Seventy Years on the Frontier": "The beaver, considered as an engineer, is a remarkable animal. He can run a tunnel as direct as the best engineer could do with his instruments to guide him. I have seen where they have built a dam across a stream, and not having sufficient head water to keep their pond full, they would cross to a stream higher up the side of the mountain, and cut a ditch from the upper stream and connect it with the pond of the lower, and do it as neatly as an engineer with his tools could possibly do it. I have often said that the beaver in the Rocky Mountains had more engineering skill than the entire corps of engineers who were connected with General Grant's army when he besieged Vicksburg on the banks of the Mississippi. The beaver would never have attempted to turn the Mississippi into a ca.n.a.l to change its channel without first making a dam across the channel below the point of starting the ca.n.a.l. The beaver, as I have said, rivals and sometimes even excels the ingenuity of man."

Longfellow translates the spirit of the beaver world into words, and enables one in imagination to restore the primeval scenes wherein the beaver lived:--

"Should you ask me, whence these stories?

Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows,

Should you ask where Nawadaha Found these songs so wild and wayward, Found these legends and traditions, I should answer, I should tell you, 'In the bird's-nests of the forest, In the lodges of the beaver.'"

And the cunning Pau-Puk-Keewis, fleeing from the wrath of Hiawatha, ran,--

"Till he came unto a streamlet In the middle of the forest, To a streamlet still and tranquil, That had overflowed its margin, To a dam made by the beavers, To a pond of quiet water, Where knee-deep the trees were standing, Where the water-lilies floated, Where the rushes waved and whispered.

On the dam stood Pau-Puk-Keewis, On the dam of trunks and branches, Through whose c.h.i.n.ks the water spouted, O'er whose summit flowed the streamlet.

From the bottom rose the beaver, Looked with two great eyes of wonder, Eyes that seemed to ask a question, At the stranger Pau-Puk-Keewis."

The Beaver Dam

Millions of beaver ponds graced America's wild gardens at the time the first settlers came. These ragged and poetic ponds varied in length from a few feet to one mile, and in area they were from one hundred acres down to a miniature pond that half a dozen merry children might encircle. These ponds were formed by dams built by beaver, and the dams varied greatly in size and were made of poles variously combined with sticks, stones, trash, rushes, and earth.

In the Bad Lands of Dakota I saw two dams that were made of chunks of coal. This material had caved from a near-by bluff. I have noticed a few that were constructed of cobble-stones. The water-front of these dams was filled and covered with clay, and they were the work of "gra.s.s beavers,"--beaver that subsist chiefly on gra.s.s, and that live in localities almost dest.i.tute of trees.

It is doubtful if a dam is ever made by felling logs or large trees across the stream. I have, however, seen a few real log dams, but in these the logs were placed parallel to the flow of water. One of these was in the Sawtooth Mountains of Idaho. Here a snow-slide swept several hundred trees down the mountain. This wreckage was piled on the bank of a stream. Beaver in a colony a short distance away accepted this gift of the G.o.ds, and of these unwieldy logs built a dam about two hundred feet downstream from where the avalanche had piled the logs. This dam was a ma.s.sive affair, about forty feet long and eight feet high. It really appeared more like a log jam than a dam, but it served the purpose intended and raised the level of the river so that the water overflowed to one side and spread in a broad sheet against a cliff and through a grove of aspens, which the beaver proceeded to harvest.

The majority of dams are made of slender green poles which are placed lengthwise with the flow for the bottom, and set braced with the end upstream a foot or so higher than the downstream end. With these there are occasionally used small limby trees. The large end of the tree is placed upstream, and the small bushy end downstream. If in a current these sometimes are weighed down with mud or stones. Short, stout sticks and long, slender poles are deftly mingled in the dam as it rises. The poles overlie, and many completed dams appear as though made of gigantic inclined half-closed shears and compa.s.ses of poles.

Thus a dam is doubly braced. The weight against it is resisted both by the end-on poles that are parallel to the flow and by those set at an angle to it.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A NEW DAM]

The shape and the material of a dam are dependent on a number of things: the nature of the place where built, the kind of materials available for its building, the purpose it is intended to serve, and the relation it may have to dams already constructed. Sometimes a small dam will be made--that may ultimately become a big one--by simply digging a ditch across the stream or basin and piling the excavated material into a dam.

Beaver, like men, are unequal in their skill, both in planning and in doing work, and the work of most beaver falls short of perfection.

Errors are not uncommon. More than one colony has commenced a dam apparently without knowing that there was not sufficient available material to complete it. Others have built in the wrong places, and have thus failed to flood the area which they desired to reach or cover with water. Occasionally the difficulties of construction have been too great for the beaver who attempted it, and the dam has been abandoned in an incomplete state. Now and then a weak dam breaks, or a strong one is swept out by a flood.

But why do beaver need or want the pond which the dam forms? They need it for the purpose of maintaining water of sufficient depth and area to enable them to move about in safety, and to transport their food-supplies with the greatest ease. Above all, the pond is a place of refuge into which the beaver can constantly plunge and have security from his numerous and ever watchful enemies. The house-entrance must be kept water-covered. In the water the beaver is in his element. On the land he is a child lost in the wilds. He has extremely short legs and a heavy body. His make-up fits him for movement in the water. He is a graceful swimmer, and in the water can move easily and evade enemies; while on land he is an awkward lubber, moves slowly, and is easily overtaken. Water of sufficient depth and area, then, is essential to the life and happiness of the beaver. To have this at all times it is necessary, in localities where the supply is at times insufficient, to maintain it by means of dams and ponds.

Deep ponds are needed around the house; shallow ponds with sh.o.r.es in near-by groves facilitate far-away logging. Dams are placed across streams whose waters are to be led away through new channels and made to serve elsewhere in ca.n.a.ls or ponds. Dams are made across inclined ca.n.a.ls to catch and hold water in them. Streams are beaver's avenues of travel. Along shallow streams in a beaver country it is not uncommon to see an occasional short dam which forms a deep hole, which apparently is maintained as a harbor or place of safety into which traveling beaver may dive and be made safe from pursuit.

Most beaver dams are built on the installment plan. They are the result of growth. The new dam is short and comparatively low. It is enlarged as conditions may require. As the trees in the edge of the pond are harvested, the dam is built higher and longer, so as to flood a larger area; or as sediment fills the pond, the dam is from time to time raised and lengthened in order to maintain the desired depth of water. Thus it may grow through the years until the possibilities of the locality are exhausted. The dam may then be abandoned. It may be used for a few years or it may be used for a century. A gigantic beaver dam may thus represent the work of several generations of beaver. It often occurs that one or more generations may use a dam and yearly add something to its size. By and by these beaver may die or emigrate. The old dam remains, falling to ruin in places. Years go by and other beaver come upon the scene. The old dam is then used for the foundation for a new one. The appearance of some old dams indicates that they have been repeatedly used and abandoned.

New dams, being made largely of coa.r.s.e materials, appear very unlike old ones. Decay, settling, repairs, and other changes come rapidly.

The dam is built of poles to-day; it speedily becomes earthy and is planted by nature to gra.s.s, willows, and flowers. On old, large dams it is not uncommon to see old forest-trees. The roots of these entangle the constructive materials, penetrate deeply, and help to anchor securely the entire dam.

In only a few cases are the water-fronts of dams at once plastered or filled in with mud. This is done only where there is a scarcity of water. It is the aim of the beaver to raise the water in the pond to a certain height and there maintain it, the chief purpose of the dam being to regulate the height or the depth of the water. The water, in streaming through new dams, deposits therein quant.i.ties of sticks, trash, and sediment, so that in a year or two these choke the holes, almost stop the leakage of the water, and help to solidify the dam.

The discharge from dams is regulated by the beaver. In some instances water leaks through a dam in numerous places from bottom to top; in others it seeps through only close to the top; and in still others the dam is so solid that the water pours over the top in a thin sheet. In some cases, however, instead of the water pouring over the entire length of the dam the beaver force it to pour over in a given stretch at one end or the other, or sometimes through a hole or tunnel. The concentration of the overflow at some one point in the dam is commonly done either for the purpose of using it in transportation or to force the water to outpour on a spot where it will least erode the foundation of the dam. Occasionally beaver compel the water to flow round the end of a dam, which they raise sufficiently high for that purpose. Sometimes they dig a waste-way for the water.

European beaver appear to have barely developed to the dam-building stage. Rarely did they build even a small, unimportant dam. Nor did all the American beaver build dams. At the time the beaver population was most numerous and widely distributed, probably not more than half of them used the dam. However, those not using the dam were living in places where the dam and consequent pond were not needed. Dam-building enormously increased the habitable beaver area. There were, and are, thousands of brooks which each year cease to flow for a period, yet on these brooks are all other beaver requirements except a permanent, sufficient water-supply. By dam-building water is stored for to-morrow, or stream-courses changed, and with the a.s.sistance of ca.n.a.ls water is diverted to a dry ravine where a colony is established.

The dam is the largest and in many respects the most influential beaver work. Across a stream it is an inviting thoroughfare for the folk of the wild. As soon as a dam is completed, it becomes a wilderness highway. It is used day and night. Across it go bears and lions, rabbits and wolves, mice and porcupines; chipmunks use it for a bridge, birds alight upon it, trout attempt to leap it, and in the evening the graceful deer cast their reflections with the willows in its quiet pond. Across it dash pursuer and pursued. Upon it take place battles and courtships. Often it is torn by hoof and claw. Death struggles stain it with blood. Many a drama, romantic and picturesque, fierce and wild, is staged upon the beaver dam.

The beaver dam gives new character to the landscape. It frequently alters the course of a stream and changes the topography. It introduces water into the scene. It nourishes new plant-life. It brings new birds. It provides a harbor and a home for fish throughout the changing seasons. It seizes sediment and soil from the rushing waters, and it sends water through subterranean ways to form and feed springs which give bloom to terraces below. It is a distributor of the waters; and on days when dark clouds are shaken with heavy thunder, the beaver dam silently b.r.e.a.s.t.s, breaks, and delays the down-rushing flood waters, saves and stores them; then, through all the rainless days that follow, it slowly releases them.

Most old colonies have many dams and ponds. A dam is sometimes built for the purpose of forcing water back and to one side into a grove that is to be harvested for food. In many cases water flows round the end of a dam, and in making its way back to the main channel is intercepted by another dam, then another; and thus the water from one small brook maintains a cl.u.s.ter or chain of pondlets.

The majority of beaver dams are as crooked as a river's course. Now and then one is straight. A few are built from sh.o.r.e to a boulder, from the boulder to a willow-clump, and finally, perhaps, from willow-clump to some outstretching peninsula on the further sh.o.r.e. It is not uncommon for a short dam to be built and afterwards lengthened with additions on each end which may curve either down or up stream.

Sometimes a dam is built outward from opposite sh.o.r.es simultaneously by separate but cooperating crews of beaver. In swift water these ends are forced downstream in building, so that when they are finally joined midstream the dam curves noticeably downstream.

On one occasion I watched beaver commence and complete a dam in moderately swift water that when finished bowed strongly _upstream_.

This, however, was not the intention of the builders. The material for this dam consisted of willow and alder poles that were cut some distance upstream. These were floated down as used. This dam was begun against a huge boulder near midstream, and built outward simultaneously toward both sh.o.r.es. Despite the repeated efforts of the builders to extend it in a straight line to the sh.o.r.e, the flow of the water pushed these outbuilding ends downward, and when they finally reached the sh.o.r.e this fifty-odd feet of dam with the boulder for a keystone had an arch that was about fifteen feet in advance of the bases.

Not far from where I lived in the mountains when a boy, the beaver built a dam. This had a slight arch upstream. A few years later the dam was doubled in length by building an extension on the end which bowed downstream. It thus stood a reverse curve. Later the dam was still further lengthened by a comparatively straight stretch on one end, and by a short, down-bowing stretch on the other. Recent additions to this dam consist of wings at the end which sweep upstream. The dam as it now stands reaches about three fourths of the way around the pond which it forms.

It is not uncommon for a dam to be planned and built with an arch against the current or against the water which it afterwards impounds.