The English Darwinian met with only one case in which the offspring of a woman by a second husband, who was a white man, showed the influence of her first husband, who was a negro. Mr. Herbert Spencer would seem to have been more successful. In _The Contemporary Review_ for May, 1893, Mr. Spencer gives the result of his own enquiries as to the effect on a white woman's subsequent progeny of a previous union with a negro, and he quotes the opinion of a "distinguished correspondent," that information given to him many years ago was to the effect that "the children of white women by a white father had been _repeatedly_ observed to show traces of black blood, in cases where the woman had previous connexion with [i. e., a child by] a negro." Mr. Spencer refers also to Professor Marsh as authority for such a case, and to the opinion of several medical professors who a.s.sured him, through Dr. W. J. Youmans, that the alleged result "is generally accepted as a fact." He gives as authoritative testimony the following statement by Dr. Austin Flint, taken from his "Text-book of Human Physiology:" "A peculiar and, it seems to me, an inexplicable fact is, that previous pregnancies had an influence upon offspring. This is well known to breeders of animals. If pure blooded mares or b.i.t.c.hes have been once covered by an inferior male, in subsequent fecundations the young are likely to partake of the character of the first male, even if they be bred with males of unimpeachable pedigree. What the mechanism of the influence of the first conception is, it is impossible to say; but the fact is incontestable.

The same influence is observed in the human subject. A woman may have, by a second husband, children who resemble a former husband, and this is particularly well marked in certain instances by the color of the hair and eyes. A white woman who has had children by a negro may subsequently bear children to a white man, these children presenting some of the unmistakable peculiarities of the negro race."

This phenomenon would alone seem to answer the question of the transmission of acquired characters in the affirmative, for its explanation is to be found in the facts brought out by Darwin, as to the action of foreign pollen on the structure of the mother plant; in relation to which Professor Romanes remarks: "When one variety fertilizes the ovules of another not unfrequently the influence extends beyond the ovules to the ovarium, and even to the calyx and flower-stalk, of the mother plant. This influence, which may affect the shape, size, colour, and texture of the somatic tissues of the mother, has been observed in a large number of plants belonging to many different orders."[89:A] May we not have here the explanation of the fact, which has frequently been pointed out, that husband and wife show a tendency to grow like each other, both physically and mentally, the resemblance after a long married life being sometimes very striking?

POWER OF HEREDITY.--The most important fact brought out in the discussion of the possibility of the transmission of acquired characters is the power of heredity. If organisms did not reproduce their own special characteristics, there could be no fixity of form and no order in organic nature. Nevertheless, if there were no change by individual modification or divergence, in whatever way this may be rendered permanent in the race, there could be no evolution. Hence we can say, with Dr. Eimer, "Any one who thus completely renders allegiance to the supremacy of the principles of the unity of the organic world, who rejects everything which contradicts that principle, cannot help admitting that in truth, as I a.s.sert, the ultimate origin of the various kinships in the animal and vegetable kingdom is to be traced to individual differences, and that the difference between the former, like the latter, must be essentially determined by external conditions, by the modification of organic growth."

The causes of diversity which interfere with the action of heredity may operate, as we have seen, at the moment of conception, or subsequent to conception. The former cla.s.s of causes is of great importance, in accordance with the principle, laid down by M. Ribot, of the disproportion of effects to causes, and it is essential, therefore, if children are to be well-born, that their parents should be careful that at the moment of procreation they are fitted for the performance of so serious an act. Mr. J. F. Nisbet in his "Marriage and Heredity" (page 126), well observes, "Twins usually bear a closer resemblance to each other than to their brothers and sisters born at a different period; and the reason generally a.s.signed is that they are conceived under precisely similar conditions. If so, it follows that the difference existing between ordinary members of a family is due to their being born at considerable intervals of time and therefore under changed conditions on the part of their parents."

SOBRIETY IN THE FATHER.--Especially does it concern the father, who is the most active agent in reproduction, to see that he is then in a fit condition. This is quite apart from the question of the diseased condition of the organism treated of by Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings, and refers to temporary rather than to continuing causes. Sobriety is in this connection of great importance, and, as appears from a pa.s.sage, already quoted, in Xenophon, was insisted on at the time of procreation, by the ancients.

Zeigler points out, as quoted by Dr. Eimer, that "substances taken up from without, as, for example, poisons, are brought by the blood to the s.e.xual cells, and others produced in the body are conveyed to the s.e.xual organs."[91:A] It is suggested that alcohol has such an effect, and there can be no doubt that a tendency to the drinking habit may be implanted in a child by a parent intoxicated at the time of procreation, with the possibility of its leading to other evils in succeeding generations, ending in the early extinction of the family.

Nisbet refers to several cases of this character, and remarks (page 112) that, "There is a limit to the transmission of abnormal characters, either in an original or in a disguised form. Always striving after perfection, or rather uniformity of type, Nature either purifies a race of its physical and moral defects, or, if the type be too vicious, exterminates it, as in the case of the Caesars, the Stuarts, and many other historical families." Doutrebente came to the conclusion, however, that insanity--and doubtless it is true of other conditions--may be worked out of a family by the infusion of healthy blood, except where both parents were insane, in which case their offspring will become extinct.

The law of Leviticus (chap. x, verse 9) provides, under penalty of death, that the priests should not drink wine or strong drink before going into the tent of meeting. The more stringent regulations provided by this law in relation to intercourse between Jehovah and His people require physical and moral perfection in those who approach the deity, and they may be studied with advantage at the present day by those who wish to aid in the perfecting of the race. The man who had a blemish was not allowed to go near the altar of sacrifice, that the sanctuary might not be profaned; and the sanctuary of the human organism should no less be preserved from profanation.

SACREDNESS OF PARENTAGE.--It would be well if the sacred act of procreation were performed more often in the spirit of the ancients, who regarded marriage as a sacred inst.i.tution, designed not only for the perpetuation of the race, but also for the carrying on of the religion of the domestic hearth. The first-born child especially was considered to have been sent by the G.o.ds, and care was taken, therefore, that it should be well-born. Prayer and offerings were made to the spirits before the nuptial bed was approached, and everything was done to ensure the gift they were asked for should be in every respect worthy of them.

Among the ancient Hebrews the first-born of "all that openeth the womb"

was dedicated to Jehovah (Exodus x.x.xiv, 19), and hence the rights of the eldest son could not be defeated by his father: "for he is the beginning of his strength" (Deut. xxi, 17).

The disturbance of uterine existence between conception and birth is that which has engaged most attention, and the fact that such disturbances can take place requires that the expectant mother should be protected from anything that can so act on her own organism as to prevent the due operation of the law of heredity. The precautions taken by primitive peoples in relation to food may have some foundation in fact, and any food should be avoided by the enceinte woman which will injuriously influence the system, or give rise to organic disturbances that may affect the blood by which the embryo is nourished. Emotional disturbances are to be no less avoided, as through the nervous system they act on the blood itself. How far the action of the emotions can influence the physical organism has become a moot question with psychologists, who now seem inclined to think that "movements are not caused by the emotions, but are aroused reflexly by the object." Thus, if the sight of a disagreeable object affects by reflex action the muscular system of the mother, it will arouse in her a concomitant emotion, which being transmitted to the embryo may act on its muscular system, leaving the impression as a birthmark, which may be regarded as a reflection from the cerebral nerve center of the mother, whether emotion is the cause or effect of muscular movement.

If the unborn child can be affected injuriously by disturbances of the mother's environment, it is reasonable to suppose that the child can be influenced in the opposite direction by making that environment as conducive to the normal activity of the material organism as possible.

The story of Jacob and Laban, referred to at the beginning of this chapter, affords an important lesson as to the surroundings with which the wife should be provided. The bedchamber itself may become a means of influencing offspring for good or evil, and hence it should contain only what is agreeable to the senses, and capable of giving rise to pleasant imaginings. Especially should this be the case where a woman is of a highly sensitive nature. Impressions received from without depend largely for their force and influence, however, on the condition of the receptive mind, and beautiful surroundings cannot make up for the want of inward harmony. A happy and contented mind is the best guarantee that the due action of the law of heredity will not be disturbed at the time of conception or afterwards. Thus, bickerings between husband and wife must have a disturbing effect, especially if carried into the bedchamber. The sage of old said: "Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath," and parents should make it a point of duty, for the sake of their future offspring, never to let the disputes of the daytime--if unfortunately they occur--be carried into the night. The bedchamber is the place for mental as well as physical repose.

The surest guarantee against the occurrence of conditions which may injuriously affect the future offspring, either at the time of procreation, or during the subsequent period of gestation, is to be found in the general life of the parents. This will give the general impress which affects the disposition of the child as a whole, and it will show what are the conditions of the family life under the influence of which it was born. The nature of the "home" is thus an important factor in determining that of the offspring, and it will necessarily be a reflection of the general character of those on whom it depends. A n.o.ble life in the parent will bear fruit in the physical, intellectual and moral character of the child, and although this is true in relation to the father as well as to the mother, it is doubly true as to the latter, seeing that the mother alone is the bearer and nourisher of offspring during the period of gestation. During this period the child acquires probably many of the characters which it inherits from its mother, and the maternal influence may thus be extended to the period of lactation. The importance attached to fosterage, where this practice became an established custom, as with the early Irish and Arabs, would seem to prove that the characteristics of the nurse were to some extent transmitted to the child with the milk. The early Arabs regarded the milk-tie as const.i.tuting a real unity of flesh and blood between the foster mother and the foster child, and between foster children, so much so as to be a bar to marriage.

SELF-CONTROL.--One very serious matter which should be kept in mind by an expectant mother is the duty of exercising self-control. The influence of this principle in relation to the general life and conduct has been repeatedly pointed out, and it is referred to by Jennie Chandler in _The Journal of Hygiene_ for August, 1895, where we are told: "The power of self-mastery is believed by scientists to be the last one acquired by the human race in the process of evolution, and the last powers acquired are not so firmly fixed in our natures as some which have been longer in our possession. The result is, it becomes deranged more readily than more fixed forces. In many cases, self-control has never been acquired at all, and so the person can only partly master himself. As a rule, children have little of this power.

They are like animals. Little by little, as they grow older, it grows, and in some it becomes so well developed that it is almost perfect. In others, like music in those who never acquire it, or any other faculty, it never becomes a potent factor in life."

Dr. Chandler adds, "Woman as well as man needs to learn self-mastery.

With a large amount of feeling in her nature, it is very hard for her to do it, but she should try. Too many of us go through life never making any effort to be our own masters. We give way to caprices, whims, feelings, follies, far more than is good for our health. Hysteria gives us a good example of the loss of self-control. Any uncontrolled pa.s.sion gives an equally vivid example. Men and women often say they can't govern themselves; that is admitting they have defects of character which are their masters. They ought to make effort and see if they are not mistaken. The worst effect of lack of self-control are on the health. It allows every kind of bad habit in eating, drinking, dressing, sleeping, to gain possession of the person, and the result is a weak instead of a strong character."

Considering the effect which the organic disposition of the mother has on the future offspring, it is evident that whether a child shall have the power of self-control depends very largely on the mother herself, and it is all-important, therefore, that she should have and exercise that power herself. As Dr. Chandler remarks, "No matter how much you have been to school, how many college degrees you have, you are not educated till you have a reasonable control of your own nature, and can direct your own lives rather than have them directed for you by your feelings and emotions." This truth obtains fresh significance when we consider that a woman's conduct affects the direction not only of her own life, but the lives of her future children, and possibly of succeeding generations.

Although much has yet to be done to prove the actual effects on offspring of the conduct of its parents, enough is known to establish the fact that both the general disposition and the particular conduct of father or mother may interfere with the orderly action of the law of heredity. This law ensures the inheritance of race and individual characters; but when these are good, a n.o.ble life will cause the tendencies towards good to be still further strengthened in offspring, and if they are evil, then the disposition will receive an inclination in the opposite direction, or, at least, the further development of evil will be arrested. On the other hand, a degrading life will produce bad effects on offspring, causing deterioration of the organic disposition and strengthening the tendency to evil it may have inherited, or weakening its tendencies towards the good.

FOOTNOTES:

[57:A] "Heredity." By Th. Ribot (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1875), p.

201.

[59:A] "The Origin of the Fittest." By E. D. Cope (D. Appleton & Co., New York). Page 408.

[65:A] "Pioneering in New Guinea." By James Chalmers. 1887. Page 165.

[66:A] "Development of Kinship and Marriage." Page 264.

[67:A] "Researches into the Early History of Mankind." Page 292.

[71:A] Cope's "Origin of the Fittest." (Redway, London. 1889.) Page 407.

[72:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A.

(London, Macmillan & Co., 1890.) Page 86.

[73:A] "Examination of Weismannism." The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago. 1893.

[77:A] _The Contemporary Review_, September, 1893.

[79:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A. Page 13.

[80:A] "Organic Evolution," page 176.

[84:A] "Organic Evolution," page 211.

[84:B] Op. cit., page 201.

[85:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 77.

[87:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 22.

[89:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 79.

[91:A] "Organic Evolution," page 187.

HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.

_A Lecture delivered before the Brooklyn Ethical a.s.sociation._

In presenting the subject of heredity and its relation to education, it seems to me best to consider first what is meant by the term, and after this the views held on the subject by our leading evolutionists, when its relation to education will be easier and, I hope, more satisfactory.

In common parlance, heredity is the transmission of any trait or peculiarity from the parent to the offspring, as the color of the hair, the form of the nose, the tones of the voice; or any disease, or any special character that may exist in either parent.

If a horse has a star on its forehead like one of its ancestors, we say it is due to heredity. If an ox has color marks on its body like its parent, it is a case of heredity. If a human being has a disease which his ancestors had, very often he declares he inherited it from them, even if it be only a common catarrh. But this is a narrow view of the subject, and does not include all that a biologist means when he uses this word.

By heredity he understands the production from a fertilized ovum of an individual, with all the general characteristics of structure and function of body and brain of the species to which it belongs. It means that the offspring, however much they may vary in general characters, will always be of the same species as the parents. The offspring of dogs will be dogs; of wolves, wolves; of negroes, negroes, and of white men, white men. Anything less is not heredity in its full sense.

Darwin, whom we all love and honor, says: "The whole subject of inheritance is wonderful," and in this he but voices the universal sentiment of those who have given any serious consideration to it. Let me try to show you how wonderful it is by an ill.u.s.tration. From very ancient times the horse has been the constant companion of man. This animal, with his splendid muscular system, the most perfect, perhaps, of any creature, has for his food and shelter, and not always the best of these, rendered mankind almost infinite service. Now, every horse that has ever been born into the world began life as a minute ovum, which under the microscope presents no appearance of a horse, or any other animal, and, strange to say, this ovum is, to all appearance, like the ovum of other animals, and no amount of study, without knowing its origin, can decide whether it will develop as a dog, an ox, a horse or a man. After, however, it has gone through the process of gestation, this apparently simple egg becomes an animal of a very complex nature, with heart, lungs, brain, eyes, ears, mouth, stomach, and blood vessels, all where they should be and ready to perform their functions; with mental traits of a peculiar kind which adapt him to the service which man requires. Nay more: In the process of the evolution of the horse, little by little he has changed in various ways, and many, if not all of these changes in his bodily const.i.tution and in his mental characteristics, which have been found useful or made him more serviceable to man, his greater docility, his increased size, his enormous strength and speed, his wonderful beauty, through a wise selection and the weeding out of the unfit on the part of the breeder, have been transmitted through heredity to his offspring, so that today only a paleontologist can tell us if he finds the remains of a primitive horse, that it belongs to the same cla.s.s of animals as the horse of our time.

THEORIES.--Our theories of heredity will depend on the extent of our knowledge, and especially our knowledge of embryology. In the last century knowledge on this subject was very meagre, especially that part of embryology which could only be studied with the microscope; consequently the views of scientists and others of that time were exceedingly crude. The most important was that of Malphigi and Bonnet, who maintained that the miniature animal existed in the egg; that fertilization by the male element simply furnished it with food for growth, and that this was added to and stored up in its interstices.