3. SCIENCE.--Herbert Spencer (b. 1820) as early as 1852 advanced the theory of the natural and gradual coalition of organic life upon this globe. In 1855, in his "Principles of Psychology," he gave a new exposition of the laws of mind, based upon this principle, and held that it is by experience, registered in the slowly perfecting nervous system, that the mental faculties have been gradually evolved through long courses of descent, each generation inheriting all that had been previously gained, and adding its own increment to the sum of progress; that all knowledge, and even the faculties of knowing, originate in experience, but that the primary elements of thought are _a priori_ intuitions to the individual derived from ancestral experience. Thus the intuitional and experience hypotheses, over which philosophers had so long disputed, were here for the first time reconciled. This work, the first permanent scientific result of the application of the law of evolution, formed a turning-point in the thought of the scientific world. Spencer's prospectus of a philosophical system, in which the principles of evolution were applied to the subjects of life, mind, society, and morals, appeared in 1858, maturely elaborated in its scientific proofs and applications, thus preceding the works of other evolutionary writers, the most distinguished of whom, Charles Darwin (1809-1883), has been more identified in the popular mind with the theories of evolution than Spencer himself. The writings of Darwin have had a wider influence and have been the subject of more controversy than those of any other contemporary writer. In his "Origin of Species" he accounts for the diversities of life on our globe by means of continuous development, without the intervention of special creative fiats at the origin of each species, and to this organic evolution he added the important principle of natural selection. He may be regarded as the great reformer of biology and the most distinguished naturalist of the age. Tyndall (b. 1810) has done more than any other writer to popularize great scientific truths. Huxley (b. 1825) stands foremost among physiologists and naturalists.

Among numerous other writers distinguished in various branches of science a few only can be here named. Walter Bagehot writes on Political Society; Alexander Bain on Mind and Body; Henry Maudsley on Brain and Mind; Norman Lockyer on Spectrum a.n.a.lysis; and Sir John Lubbock on Natural History.

4. MISCELLANEOUS.--The most distinguished historian of the times is James Anthony Froude (b. 1818), who, in his "Short Studies," shows the same vigor of thought and power of description that render his history so fascinating. The histories of John Richard Green are valuable for their original research, and have a wide celebrity. Max Muller has rendered important services to the sciences of Philology and Ethnology, by his researches in Oriental languages and literatures. Lecky is eminent for his history of "Rationalism in Europe" and "History of Morals." Leslie Stephen, John Morley, and Addington Symonds are distinguished in various departments of criticism and history. Justin McCarthy, in his "History of our own Times," has skillfully presented an intellectual panorama of the period.

Hamerton writes on Art and on general topics with keen and critical observation. Lewes (d. 1878) is the able expounder of the philosophy of Comte. Frances Power Cobbe, in her "Intuitive Morals" and other works, shows strong reasoning powers and great earnestness of purpose. John Stuart Mill (d. 1873) holds a high place as a writer on Political Economy, Liberty, and on the Subjection of Women. The periodicals and newspapers of the day show remarkable intellectual ability, and represent the best contemporary thought in England in all departments.

AMERICAN LITERATURE.

THE COLONIAL PERIOD.--1. The Seventeenth Century. George Sandys; The Bay Psalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton Mather.--2. From 1700 to 1770; Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwallader Colden.

FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1771 TO 1820.--1. Statesmen and Political Writers: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton. The Federalist: Jay, Madison, Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others.--2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull, Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight.--3. Writers in other Departments: Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley Murray, Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt, Ledyard, Pinkney, and Pike.

SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860.--1. History, Biography, and Travels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, G.o.dwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft, Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch, Taylor, and others.--2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett, and others.--3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms, Mrs. Stowe, and others.--4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow, Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others.

--5. The Transcendental Movement in New England.--6. Miscellaneous Writings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Briggs, Prentice, and others.--7.

Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The Encyclopaedia Americana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold, Duyckinck, Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others.--8. Theology, Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland, Barnes, Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier.--9. Natural Sciences: Franklin, Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchc.o.c.k, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce, Bache, Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others.--10. Foreign Writers: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Aga.s.siz, Guyot, Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others.--11. Newspapers and Periodicals.

--12. Since 1860.

THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1640-1770).

1. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--Of all the nations which have sprung into existence through the medium of European colonization, since the discovery of America, the United States is the only one having a literature of its own creation, and containing original works of a high order. Its earliest productions, however, are of little value; they belong not to a period of literary leisure, but to one of trial and danger, when the colonist was forced to contend with a savage enemy, a rude soil, and all the privations of pioneer life. It was not until the spirit of freedom began to influence the national character, that the literature of the colonies a.s.sumed a distinctive form, although its earliest productions are not without value as marking its subsequent development.

Among the bold spirits who, with Captain John Smith, braved the pestilential swamps and wily Indians of Virginia, there were some lovers of literature, the most prominent of whom was George Sandys, who translated Ovid's "Metamorphoses" on the banks of James River. The work, published in London in 1620, was dedicated to Charles I. and received the commendations of Pope and Dryden. The Puritans, too, carried a love of letters with them to the sh.o.r.es of New England, and their literary productions, like their colony, took a far more lasting root than did those of their more southern brethren. The intellect of the colonies first developed itself in a theological form, which was the natural consequence of emigration, induced by difference of religious opinion, the free scope afforded for discussion, and the variety of creeds represented by the different races who thus met on a common soil. The clergy, also, were the best educated and the most influential cla.s.s, and the colonial era therefore boasted chiefly a theological literature, though for the most part controversial and fugitive. While there is no want of learning or reasoning power in the tracts of many of the theologians of that day, they are now chiefly referred to by the antiquarian or the curious student of divinity.

The first hook printed in the colonies was the "Bay Psalm Book," which appeared in 1640; it was reprinted in England, where it pa.s.sed through seventy editions, and retained its popularity for more than a century, although it was not strictly original, and was devoid of literary merit.

This was followed by a volume of original poems, by Mrs. Anne Bradstreet (d. 1672); though not above mediocrity, these effusions are chaste in language and not altogether insipid in ideas. A few years later, John Eliot (1604-1690), the famous Apostle to the Indians, published a version of the Psalms and of the Old and New Testaments in the Indian tongue, which was the first Bible printed in America. The next production of value was a "Concordance of the Scriptures," by John Newman (d. 1663), compiled by the light of pine knots in one of the frontier settlements of New England; the first work of its kind, and for more than a century the most perfect. Cotton Mather (d. 1728) was one of the most learned men of his age, and one of its representative writers. His princ.i.p.al work is the "Magnalia Christi Americana," an ecclesiastical history of New England, from 1620 to 1698, including the civil history of the times, several biographies, and an account of the Indian wars, and of New England witchcraft. Eliot and Mather were the most prominent colonial writers down to 1700.

2. FROM 1700 TO 1770.--From the year 1700 to the breaking out of the Revolution, it was the custom of many of the colonists to send their sons to England to be educated. Yale College and other inst.i.tutions of learning were established at home, from which many eminent scholars graduated, and, although it was the fashion of the day to imitate the writers of the time of Queen Anne and the two Georges, the productions of this age exhibit a manly vigor of thought, and mark a transition from the theological to the more purely literary era of American authorship.

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1785) was the first native writer who gave unequivocal evidence of great reasoning power and originality of thought; he may not unworthily be styled the first man of the world during the second quarter of the eighteenth century; and as a theologian, Dr.

Chalmers and Robert Hall declare him to have been the greatest in all Christian ages. Of the works of Edwards, consisting of diaries, discourses, and treatises, that on "The Will" is the most celebrated.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was equally ill.u.s.trious in statesmanship and philosophy. The style of his political and philosophical writings is admirable for its simplicity, clearness, precision, and condensation; and that of his letters and essays has all the wit and elegance that characterize the best writers of Queen Anne's time. His autobiography is one of the most pleasing compositions in the English language, and his moral writings have had a powerful influence on the character of the American people.

From the early youth of Franklin until about the year 1770, general literature received much attention, and numerous productions of merit both in prose and verse appeared, which, if not decidedly great, were interesting for the progress they displayed. Many practical minds devoted themselves to colonial history, and their labors have been of great value to subsequent historians. Among these historical writings, those of Cadwallader Colden (1688-1776) take the first rank. As we approach the exciting dawn of the Revolution, the growing independence of thought becomes more and more manifest.

FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD (1770-1820).

1. STATESMEN AND POLITICAL WRITERS.--Among the causes which rapidly developed literature and eloquence in the colonies, the most important were the oppressions of the mother country, at first silently endured, then met with murmurs of dissatisfaction, and finally with manful and boldly-expressed opposition. Speeches and pamphlets were the weapons of attack, and treating as they did upon subjects affecting the individual liberty of every citizen, they had a powerful influence on the public mind, and went far towards severing that mental reliance upon Europe which American authorship is now so rapidly consummating. The conventionalism of European literature was cast aside, and the first fruits of native genius appeared. The public doc.u.ments of the princ.i.p.al statesmen of the age of the Revolution were declared by Lord Chatham to equal the finest specimens of Greek or Roman wisdom. The historical correspondence of this period const.i.tutes a remarkable portion of American literature, and is valuable not only for its high qualities of wisdom and patriotism, but for its graces of expression and felicitous ill.u.s.tration. The letters of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Jay, Morris, Hamilton, and many of their compatriots, possess a permanent literary value aside from that which they derive from their authorship and the gravity of their subjects.

The speeches of many of the great orators of the age of the Revolution are not preserved, and are known only by tradition. Of the eloquence of Otis, which was described as "flames of fire," there are but a few meagre reports; the pa.s.sionate appeals of Patrick Henry and of the elder Adams, which "moved the hearers from their seats," and the resistless declamation of Pinkney and Rutledge, are preserved only in the history of the effects which these orators produced.

The writings of Washington (1732-1799), produced chiefly in the camp surrounded by the din of arms, are remarkable for clearness of expression, force of language, and a tone of lofty patriotism. They are second to none of similar character in any nation, and they display powers which, had they been devoted to literature, would have achieved a position of no secondary character.

Jefferson (1743-1826) early published a "Summary View of the Rights of British America," which pa.s.sed through several editions in London, under the supervision of Burke. His "Notes on Virginia" is still a standard work, and his varied and extensive correspondence is a valuable contribution to American political history.

Hamilton (1757-1804) was one of the most remarkable men of the time, and to his profound sagacity the country was chiefly indebted for a regulated currency and an established credit after the conclusion of the war. During a life of varied and absorbing occupation as a soldier, lawyer, and statesman, he found time to record his principles; and his writings, full of energy and sound sense, are n.o.ble in tone, and deep in wisdom and insight. "The Federalist," a joint production of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, exhibits a profundity of research and an acuteness of understanding which would do honor to the most ill.u.s.trious statesmen of any age. The name of Madison (1751-1836) is one of the most prominent in the history of the country, and his writings, chiefly on political, const.i.tutional, and historical subjects, are of extraordinary value to the student in history and political philosophy.

Marshall (1755-1835) was for thirty-five years chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the United States; a court, the powers of which are greater than were ever before confided to a judicial tribunal.

Determining, without appeal, its own jurisdiction and that of the legislative and executive departments, this court is not merely the highest estate in the country, but it settles and continually moulds the const.i.tution of the government. To the duties of his office, Judge Marshall brought a quickness of conception commensurate with their difficulty, and the spirit and strength of one capable of ministering to the development of a nation. The vessel of state, it has been said, was launched by the patriotism of many; the chart of her course was designed chiefly by Hamilton; but when the voyage was begun, the eye that observed, the head that reckoned, and the hand that compelled the ship to keep her course amid tempests without, and threats of mutiny within, were those of the great chief-justice, whom posterity will reverence as one of the founders of the nation. Marshall's "Life of Washington" is a faithful and conscientious narrative, written in a clear, unpretending style, and possesses much literary merit.

Fisher Ames (1758-1808), one of the leaders of the federal party during the administration of Washington, was equally admired for his learning and eloquence; although, owing to the temporary interest of many of the subjects on which he wrote, his reputation has somewhat declined.

Among other writers and orators of the age of the Revolution were Warren, Adams, and Otis, Patrick Henry, Rutledge, Livingston, Drayton, Quincy, d.i.c.kinson, and numerous firm and gifted men, who, by their logical and earnest appeals roused the country to the a.s.sertion of its rights and gave a wise direction to the power they thus evoked.

2. THE POETS.--One of the most distinguished poets of the Age of the Revolution was Philip Freneau (1752-1832). Although many of his compositions which had great political effect at the time they were written have little merit, or relate to forgotten events, enough remains to show that he was not wanting in genius and enthusiasm.

John Trumbull (1750-1831) was the author of "McFingal," a humorous poem in the style of Butler's Hudibras, the object of which was to render ludicrous the zeal and logic of the tories. There is no contemporaneous record which supplies so vivid a representation of the manners of the age, and the habits and modes of thinking that then prevailed. The popularity of McFingal was extraordinary, and it had an important influence on the great events of the time. Trumbull was a tutor in Yale College, and attempted to introduce an improved course of study and discipline into the inst.i.tution, which met with much opposition. His most finished poem, "The Progress of Dullness," was hardly less serviceable to the cause of education than his McFingal was to that of liberty. Francis Hopkinson (1738-1791), another wit of the Revolution, may be ranked beside Trumbull for his efficiency in the national cause.

Joel Barlow (1755-1812) as an author was among the first of his time. His princ.i.p.al work is the "Columbiad," an epic poem which, with many faults, has occasional bursts of patriotism and true eloquence, which should preserve it from oblivion. His pleasing poem celebrating "Hasty Pudding"

has gained a more extensive popularity. The few songs of William Clifton (1772-1799), a more original and vigorous poet, are imbued with the true spirit of lyric poetry.

Timothy Dwight (1752-1819) was the author of "Greenfield Hill," the "Conquest of Canaan," an epic poem, and several other productions; but his fame rests chiefly on his merits as a theologian, in which department he had few if any equals. Many other names might be cited, but none of commanding excellence.

3. WRITERS IN OTHER DEPARTMENTS.--Although in the period immediately succeeding the Revolution there was a strong tendency to political discussion, not a few writers found exercise in other departments.

Theology had its able expounders in Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Barton merits especial notice for his work on botany, and for his ethnological investigations concerning the Indian race, and Drs. Rush and McClurg were eminent in various departments of medical science. In 1795, Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published his English Grammar, which for a long time held its place as the best work of the kind in the language.

It should be borne in mind, however, that during this period very few writers devoted themselves exclusively to literature. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) was the first purely professional author. His chief productions are two works of fiction, "Wieland" and "Arthur Mervyn," which from their merit, and as the first of American creations in the world of romance, were favorably received, and early attracted attention in England.

One of the earliest laborers in the field of history was David Ramsay (1749-1815), and his numerous works are monuments of his unwearied research and patient labor for the public good and the honor of his country. Graydon's (1742-1818) "Memoirs of his own Times, with Reminiscences of Men and Events of the Revolution," ill.u.s.trates the most interesting and important period of our history, and combines the various excellences of style, scholarship, and impartiality.

Benjamin Thompson (1753-1814), better known by his t.i.tle of Count Rumford, acquired an extensive reputation in the scientific world for his various philosophical improvements in private and political economy. William Wirt was the author of the "Letters of the British Spy," which derives its interest from its descriptions and notices of individuals. His "Life of Patrick Henry" is a finished piece of biography, surpa.s.sed by few works of its kind in elegance of style and force of narrative.

John Ledyard (1751-1788), who died in Egypt while preparing for the exploration of Central Africa, was the first important contributor to the literature of travel, in America, and his journals, abounding in pleasing description and truthful narratives, have become cla.s.sic in this department of letters, A captivating book of travels in France, by Lieutenant Pinkney, which appeared in 1809, created such a sensation in England, that Leigh Hunt tells us it set all the idle world going to France. Zebulon Pike, under the auspices of the government, published the first book ever written on the country between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.

SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD (1820-1860).

1. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND TRAVELS.--From the year 1820, American literature may be considered as fairly launched upon its national career.

The early laborers in the field had immense difficulties to encounter from ridicule abroad and want of appreciation at home; but they at last succeeded in dispelling all doubts as to the capability of the American mind for the exercise of original power, and to some extent diverted public thought from Europe as an exclusive source of mental supplies. The era we are now to consider will be found prolific in works of merit, and the expansion of mind will be seen to have kept pace with the political, social, and commercial progress of the nation. No subject of human knowledge has been overlooked; many European works have been elucidated by the fresh light of the American mind; a new style of thought has been developed; new scenes have been opened to the world, and Europe is receiving compensation in kind for the intellectual treasures she has heretofore sent to America.

The marvelous growth of the United States, its relations to the past and future, and to the great problem of humanity, render its history one of the most suggestive episodes in the annals of the world, and give to it a universal as well as a special dignity. Justly interpreted, it is the practical demonstration of principles which the n.o.blest spirits of England advocated with their pens, and often sealed with their blood. The early colonists were familiar with the responsibilities and progressive tendency of liberal inst.i.tutions, and in achieving the Revolution they only carried out what had long existed in idea, and actualized the views of Sidney and his ill.u.s.trious compeers. Through this intimate relation with the past of the Old World, and as initiative to its future self-enfranchis.e.m.e.nt, our history daily unfolds new meaning and increases in importance and interest. It is only within the last quarter of a century, however, that this theme has found any adequate ill.u.s.tration. Before that time the labors of American historians had been chiefly confined to the collection of materials, the unadorned record of facts which rarely derived any charm from the graces of style or the resources of philosophy.

The most successful attempt to reduce the chaotic but rich materials of American history to order, beauty, and moral significance has been made by Bancroft (b. 1800), who has brought to the work not only talent and scholarship of high order, but an earnest sympathy with the spirit of the age he was to ill.u.s.trate. In sentiment and principle his history is thoroughly American, although in its style and philosophy it has that broad and eclectic spirit appropriate to the general interest of the subject, and the enlightened sympathies of the age. Unwearied and patient in research, discriminating and judicious in the choice of authorities, and possessed of all the qualities required to fuse into a vital unity the narrative thus carefully gleaned, Bancroft has written the most accurate and philosophical account that has been given of the United States.

The works of Prescott (1796-1858) are among the finest models of historical composition, and they breathe freely the spirit of our liberal inst.i.tutions. His "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," of the "Conquest of Mexico," and the "Conquest of Peru," unite all the fascination of romantic fiction with the grave interest of authentic events. The picturesque and romantic character of his subjects, the harmony and beauty of his style, the dramatic interest of his narrative, and the careful research which renders his works as valuable for their accuracy as they are attractive for their style, have given Prescott's histories a brilliant and extensive reputation; and it is a matter of deep regret that his last and crowning work, "The History of Philip II.," should remain uncompleted. Another important contribution to the literature of the country is Motley's (1814- 1877) "History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic," a work distinguished for its historical accuracy, philosophical breadth of treatment, and clearness and vigor of style. The narrative proceeds with a steady and easy flow, and the scenes it traces are portrayed with the hand of a master; while the whole work is pervaded by a spirit of humanity and a genuine sympathy with liberty. Parke G.o.dwin's "History of France" is remarkable for its combination of deep research, picturesqueness of style; and John Poster Kirk is the author of a valuable history of Charles the Bold.

Ticknor's (1791-1871) "History of Spanish Literature," as an intellectual achievement, ranks with the best productions of its kind, and is everywhere regarded by scholars as a standard authority. It is thoroughly penetrated with the true Castilian spirit, and is a complete record of Spanish civilization, both social and intellectual, equally interesting to the general reader and to the student of civil history. It has been translated into several languages.

Henry R. Schoolcraft has devoted much time to researches among the Indian tribes of North America, and embodied the result of his labors in many volumes, containing their traditions, and the most interesting facts of their history. Catlin's "Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians," though without literary pretensions or literary merit; fills an important place in ethnological literature.

Another work of a more historical character is "The History of the Indian Tribes of North America," the joint production of Hall and McKinney.

Bradford's "American Antiquities and Researches into the Origin of the Red Race" is also an able and instructive work. In Hildreth's "History of the United States," rhetorical grace and effect give way to a plain narrative confined to facts gleaned with great care and conscientiousness. The "Field-Book of the Revolution," by Lossing, who has visited all the scenes of that memorable war, and delineated them with pen and pencil, is a work which finds its way to all the school libraries of the country. Cooper's "Naval History of the United States" abounds in picturesque and thrilling descriptions of naval warfare, and is one of the most characteristic histories, both in regard to style and subject, yet produced in America.