Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of a battle men fight as though possessed by a spirit of fury. The excitement of the conflict seems to arouse an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the ancient methods of warfare, when a battle was literally a hand-to-hand conflict, this spirit of brutality was of course even more marked. In the wars among the early Greeks men fell upon one another with the violence of wild animals.

The Greeks with their ready gift for personification conceived of this spirit of warfare as a supernatural being acting on human lives. He was called Ares, the G.o.d whose special delight was to incite the fierce pa.s.sions of men.

It was natural that the Greeks should refer his influence chiefly to their enemies. On their own part they preferred to think that their armies were inspired by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied in Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was on the side of the Trojans, while Athena aided the Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were brought into direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit of strategy.

An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal to her enemy, the translation running in these words, the Roman name Mars being used for Ares.

"Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood, Destroyer of walled cities! should we not Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend, And Jove to crown with glory whom he will, While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"[21]

[21] Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37.

As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued to aid their favorites. Mars was forced to yield before the skill and prudence of Athena. Guided by the G.o.ddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and drives him from the battle.[22]

[22] Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075.

In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome G.o.d, "stately, swift, unwearied, puissant." Though war was his chief delight he was quite susceptible to the tender pa.s.sion. Venus was the object of his devotion, and the G.o.ddess of love returned the war G.o.d's admiration. It was she who soothed his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in the presence of the G.o.ds and struck him to earth with a stone.[23]

[23] Iliad, Book xxi., lines 500 _et seq._

[Ill.u.s.tration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.

ARES SEATED

_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_]

The statue reproduced in our ill.u.s.tration shows the G.o.d in his mildest aspect. He is seated in a meditative att.i.tude, clasping his hands over his upraised knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in a posture of repose, the shield is laid aside for a moment, and he rests from his labors. In the best period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike action. The G.o.ds must always be portrayed in a dignified repose befitting their superiority to mankind. Not then in his att.i.tude or expression do we find any sign of the character of the G.o.d. There is no suggestion of unrest in his quiet posture.

The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint of his combative nature.

The cast of countenance, too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in intellectual qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably attractive, with his well-chiseled features and cl.u.s.tering curls. The small ear is as delicately cut as a woman's. The fine athletic figure is such as any warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full of power even in repose. The att.i.tude of easy grace displays its best points to advantage.

Sitting on the ground in front of the G.o.d is the figure of a mischievous baby boy. This is the little G.o.d Eros, who in Greek mythology was supposed to be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest that the subject of Ares' meditations might be some affair of the heart.

Certainly his mild smile would carry out that interpretation. Some critics have thought, however, that the statue did not originally include the child.

As we study the modelling of the figure, the free sweep of the long lines delights the eye. We shall come to understand from repeated examples that the best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret of fine lines. Our ill.u.s.tration is somewhat unusual because the figure is seated. Even in this position, however, the sculptor gives us a sense of the perfect grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing heavy or immovable in the att.i.tude. We can easily imagine how the G.o.d, rising lightly to his feet, would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action.

XI

HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES

To do his errands and carry his messages through the universe the supreme G.o.d Zeus had a herald, Hermes, the G.o.d of the wind. As the wind blows out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from Olympus to earth to do the sky G.o.d's bidding. Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and winged sandals, which carried him about with great speed. He had also a short sword bent like a scythe, given him by Zeus with the cap and sandals. He possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, and of a.s.suming different forms. As he had besides a ready wit and an eloquent tongue, he could make himself very useful. It was one of his common tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most solemn office was to conduct the souls of the dying to the other world.

This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting forth on one of the errands of Zeus:--

"The herald Argicide obeyed, And hastily beneath his feet he bound The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn To bear him over ocean like the wind, And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took, Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men, And opens them at will from sleep."[24]

[24] Book v., lines 55-61 in Bryant's translation.

One of the most famous adventures of Hermes was the slaying of the many-eyed monster Argus, from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is why the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the G.o.d the Argicide.

Another of his well known missions was the care of the motherless infant Bacchus, whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. An adventurer himself, Hermes was ever ready to aid heroes in their exploits. It was with his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head: we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" and Kingsley's "Greek Heroes."

Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and then. An old Homeric hymn tells of a sly prank he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby, stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was keeping. He was an ingenious fellow too, and this is how he invented the lyre. Taking from the beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the sh.e.l.l, pierced it with holes, and stretched from hole to hole, at regular intervals, cords of sheep gut.

"When he had wrought the lovely instrument He tried the chords, and made division meet, Preluding with the plectrum, and there went Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet Of mighty sounds."[25]

[25] From the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_ in Sh.e.l.ley's translation, Stanza ix.

[Ill.u.s.tration: English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.

HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES

_Museum, Olympia_]

With this instrument Apollo was so delighted that Hermes straightway presented it to him, to make some amends, as it were, for the injury done him. In return Apollo bestowed the _caduceus_, or wand, upon Hermes, and the two G.o.ds vowed eternal friendship.

The Greeks were very fond of their G.o.d Hermes. He was not too grand to be companionable, like the awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo.

They thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted ways and easy good nature made him a general favorite. It was an early custom to set up in his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes they were topped by the heads of other G.o.ds, but these were called for him, _hermae_. In the course of time better statues were made in full length figure. The head reproduced in our ill.u.s.tration is from such an one which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, from the ruins of which it was unearthed a few years ago.

The entire right arm and parts of both legs are missing, but the other portions of the statue show the G.o.d's position. He is leaning against a tree trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, who was, as we have seen, consigned to his care by Zeus. Hermes is not, however, looking at the child, but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in the pensive pose which we see. The features are cut with typical Greek regularity, but the countenance has besides its own individual charm.

The droop of the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in the curve of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. The lower forehead is full, showing over the eyes the bar of flesh which marks the strongly masculine nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear is as daintily modeled as the ringlets of hair.

The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. It is tender and playful, and withal exquisitely refined and courteous. What a deferential listener is suggested in that pose of the head! The pure outline of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry who gathered about King Arthur's Round Table, and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself might not have looked like this.

This statue is the work of the great sculptor Praxiteles, and is the only original marble in existence direct from his hands. All the rest of his work is known from descriptions and copies. We can understand, then, how sculptors and critics the world over have examined it to study the sculptor's methods. It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron rust from its long entombment under the soil.

XII

THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER)

We have seen how important a part in the Greek national life was occupied by the Olympic Games. They were regarded as a sacred inst.i.tution of the G.o.ds, and to contend in them was a religious consecration. None could enter them who had been guilty of dishonorable conduct or sacrilege, and young men from the n.o.blest families were not above taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, olive, and pine, having no intrinsic worth, but of priceless value to the recipients. To win them was the highest ambition of many a Greek youth.

The victor was led forth before the people, crowned with the wreath and bearing a palm branch in his hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that of his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and songs were composed in his praise.[26] From thenceforth he was a person of distinction. Finally his statue was set up in the _altis_ or sacred grove of Olympia. There were at one time as many as three thousand such statues in the place.

[26] See, for instance, Pindar's _Olympic Odes_.

It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the sculptor had greater freedom than in statues of the G.o.ds. The latter must be represented in dignified att.i.tudes of repose, but the former would naturally be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. It is so with the statue in our ill.u.s.tration called the Discobolus or Disk-thrower.

The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old that there were Greek legends of famous games played by the G.o.ds and heroes. Apollo sometimes tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, or disk, was a heavy round plate of metal, bronze or iron, about eight inches in diameter, grasped in one hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and then sent flying through the air. A modern authority explains that it was thrown not as the quoit is to-day, with arm and shoulder only, but by bringing into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the body.

"Immediately preceding the actual hurling of the discus, therefore, there had to be a general storing up and compression of energy which, when suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. The principle is simply that of the spring which, when compressed, shoots out from the centre. The greater the contortion of the body, the more each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, the greater will be the impetus when this compression is suddenly set free."[27]