Brooks could only do so: Brooks 1946; Brooks and Lambert 1946 ("severe and permanent...," 700; "fol owed by an augmentation...," 707).

Studying hibernators: See Mrosovsky 1976.

Dietary models of obesity: Sclafani 1987 (high-sugar diets); Oscai et al. 1984 (high-fat). See also Wade 1982. Regaining weight after fasting: Levitsky et al. 1976. "It doesn't matter...": Interview, Irving Faust. Transgenic animals: See, for instance, Bluher et al. 2003; Cohen et al. 2002.

Removed ovaries from rats: For an excel ent review of this work and the entire field of weight regulation and reproduction in mammals, see Wade and Schneider 1992. It was my interview with George Wade that opened my eyes to the reverse-causality hypothesis of weight gain.

"revelation": Interview, George Wade. "The animals overeat and get fat...": Interview, Tim Bartness.

"Hard living...r.e.t.a.r.ds...": Darwin 2004:56. "Fertility is linked...," "part.i.tioning and utilization...," and "reciprocal, redundant...": Wade and Schneider 1992:23536.

Newburgh stil promoting his hypothesis: Newburgh 1948. "an excuse for avoidance...": Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:42.

"being ruthless in self-criticism...": Krebs 1967.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO:.

THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS, II: INSULIN.

Epigraphs. "Every woman knows...": Pa.s.smore and Swindel s 1963:331. "The fact that insulin increases...": Haist and Best 1966:1350.

Newburgh rejected "endocrine abnormality": Newburgh, 1929 lecture, in Newburgh and Johnston 1930a. "theories that attributed obesity...": Anon. 1955b.

Mayer pointed out: Mayer 1968:6768.

Von Noorden suggested: Von Noorden, 1907c:6162.

As early as 1923: Rony 1940:228.

Falta argued in pre-insulin era: Falta 1923:58384. ("A functional y intact pancreas is necessary for fattening," is more commonly translated as "For fattening, therefore, is necessary a functional y intact pancreas.") Falta argued after insulin discovered: Rony 1940:289.

Clinicians in Europe using insulin: Grafe 1933:7576. "rich in carbohydrates...": Rony 1940:28990. Insulin for depression and schizophrenia: See Rinkel and Himwich 1959. "al the patients gained weight": Nasar 1998:293. "drastic increase": Butscher 2003: 122. The Bell Jar: Plath 1996 (twenty pounds, 237; "fatter and fatter," 192).

Insulin therapy for diabetics: Jacobson et al. 1994:444; Carlson and Campbel 1993. Rosenzweig portrayed: Rosenzweig 1994:48384. Footnote. Ibid.

"an excel ent fattening substance": Grafe 1933:7576. Newburgh insisted: Newburgh 1942:108283. See also Conn 1944.

Rony reviewed: Rony 1940:115.

Clinical investigators would state: Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:3435. See also Jol iffe 1963:15.

McGarry on Minkowski: McGarry 1992.

"garbage can": Interview, Bernard Jeanrenaud.

"Until recently...": Bruch 1957:148. "amazing how little...": Bruch 1973:6.

"the time-honored a.s.sumption...": Bruch 1957:148. The first phase: See Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:45253 ("no marked quant.i.ty..." "abundant").

Schoenheimer's life and work: Clarke 1941. With David Rittenberg: See Schoenheimer 1961.

Their discoveries: Schoenheimer 1961 ("indistinguishable...," 56). Wertheimer's seminal review: Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948 ("Mobilization and deposition," "The 'cla.s.sical theory...,'" "the lowering of the fat...," 454). Footnote. Renold and Cahil 1965a:13.

"a factor acting directly...": Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:454.

Krebs cycle: Krebs 1981 ("the main energy source..." "Al three major...," 114).

"The high degree of metabolic...": Bruch 1957:15556.

Path of events to obesity: Ibid. ("the big question...," 156; "Since it is now...," 158).

"the fat streams...": Magnus-Levy 1907:164. "smal component...": Benedict 1915. Nutritionists insisted: Cahil and Owen 1968; Newsholme and Start 1973: 21213.

The 1956 papers: Dole 1956; Gordon and Cherkes 1956 ("relation to the need" "the antic.i.p.ated need"); Laurel 1956.

APS Handbook: Renold and Cahil 1965. 50to 70 percent: Fritz 1961. "Adipose tissue is no longer...": Renold et al. 1965. An excel ent review of the regulation of fat metabolism and adipose tissue is Newsholme and Start 1973:195246.

"This lipogenesis is regulated...": Wertheimer 1965:6. Footnote. Hol ifield and Parson 1965.

Second critical point: See Newsholme and Start 1973:19798.

"a ceaseless stream...": Brodie et al. 1965:584.

half the triglycerides not used for fuel: Reshef et al. 2003. "The storage of triglyceride fat...": Gordon 1969:32930.

Glycerol phosphate: For a review of the role of this molecule, the triglyceride/fatty-acid cycle, and the glucose/fatty acid cycle, see Newsholme and Start 1973:21434. "so that they are unable...": Gordon 1970:242.

Randle cycle: Randle et al. 1963 is Randle's seminal paper on the glucose/fatty acid cycle.

"even in trace amounts...": Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960:483.

"the princ.i.p.al regulator..." and "only the negative...": Berson and Yalow 1965:561.

Effects of other hormones suppressed by insulin: Gordon 1970; Fritz 1961. Anything that increases insulin: Berson and Yalow 1965. The list of hormones that promote fat mobilization and acc.u.mulation is from Steinberg and Vaughn 1965.

Insulin secretion in VMH-lesioned animals: Han et al. 1965; Han 1968; Frohman et al. 1969; Han and Frohman 1970. "off the scale": Powley 1977.

Severing the vagus nerve: Hustvedt and Lovo 1972. Hypersecretion of insulin: a.s.simacopoulos-Jeannet and Jeanrenaud 1976. Footnote. Bray 1984.

"overwhelming": Woods and Porte 1976:275.

"relative unavailability...": Gordon 1964:1295.

Amount of glycerol phosphate available: Margolis and Vaughan 1962; Renold and Cahil 1965b.

"It may be stated categorical y...": Gordon et al. 1963.

"Carbohydrate is driving insulin...": Interview, George Cahil . 393 Fructose converted more efficiently: Havel 2005:13536.

"exquisitely sensitive": See, for instance, Cahil and Owen 1968:112. See also Cahil et al. 1959; Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960; Zierler and Rabinowitz 1964. Even low levels of insulin: See Bray 1976a:121.

Fat cel s remain sensitive: See Berson and Yalow 1965; Neel 1982; McGarry 1992.

"greatly exaggerated" insulin response: Rabinowitz and Zierler 1962 and 1961.

Diabetogenous-obesity hypothesis: Von Noorden, 1907c:6162. "We general y accept": Berson and Yalow 1965:554.

"great biologic variation" and "insulin-secretory responses": Ibid.:555.

Diabetologists and endocrinologists have speculated: Berson and Yalow 1965; McGarry 1992.

Neel's three scenarios: Neel 1982.

Investigators measure on whole-body level: Interview, Eric Ravussin. ADA rationale for carbohydrate-rich diet: See, for instance, Franz et al. 2003.

Reported by Bierman and Brunzel : Brunzel et al. 1971.

Sims's obesity studies: Bray 1972; Sims et al. 1973; Salans et al. 1974.

"mask" the diabetes: Von Noorden 1907c:61. Reproduced in animals: Maegawa et al. 1986. Brunzel refuses: Interview, John Brunzel .

"exaggerated tendency...": Silver and Bauer 1931.

Lipoprotein lipase: For a review of how LPL regulates use of fatty acids, see, for instance, Newsholme and Leech 1983:24699. A more recent review can be found in Merkel et al. 2002.

Orchestration of LPL activity: Arner et al. 1981; Smith 1985; Rebuffe-Scrive 1987; Arner and Eckel 1998.

LPL is where insulin and s.e.x hormones interact: Smith 1985; Bjorntorp 1985. Testosterone and LPL: Rebuffe-Scrive 1987. Progesterone: Greenwood et al. 1987. Estrogen: Rebuffe-Scrive et al. 1986. Changing fat deposition with pregnancy: Lithel 1987; Greenwood et al. 1987.

Greenwood's "gatekeeper hypothesis" and Zucker-rat studies: Greenwood et al. 1981.

LPL gatekeeper hypothesis, researchers reported: Kern et al. 1990; Eckel 2003; Arner and Eckel 1998 ("sufficiently altered"). During exercise: Kiens et al. 1989; Hardman and Herd 1998.

The open question, "habitual dietary carbohydrate...": Yost et al. 1998.

"farinaceous and vegetable...": Tanner 1869b:217. "Eating carbohydrates wil stimulate...": discussion period in Gracey et al. 1991:194.

Cahil gave Banting Memorial Lecture: Cahil 1971 ("overal fuel control..." "The concentration of circulating...," 785). "carbohydrate is driving insulin...," "a calorie is a calorie...," and the obese as fundamental y lazy: Interviews, George Cahil .

Kipnis fed ten "grossly obese" women: Grey and Kipnis 1971.

"necessity of restricting carbohydrates": Schettler and Schlierf 1974:39495.

Kipnis described his findings: Interview, David Kipnis.

Americans have become progressively heavier: Ogden et al. 2006. And more diabetic: CDC 2005. Gil man reported: Kim et al. 2006. On heavier infants and newborns, see also Schack-Nielsen et al. 2006 (Denmark); Surkan et al. 2004 (Sweden).402 "The baby is not diabetic...": Interview, Boyd Metzger.

"If you overdo it...": Quoted in Goldberg 2006. "Our observation of a trend...": Kim et al. 2006.

Fatter babies more likely: See, for instance, Guo et al. 2002. "perpetuating the cycle...": Dabelea et al. 2000.

"excessive glucose pulses": Neel 1982.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE:.

THE FATTENING CARBOHYDRATE DISAPPEARS.

Epigraphs. "We need the help...": b.u.t.terfield 1969:8. "It is incredible...": Atkins 1973:8.

McGovern hearing on Atkins diet: Select Committee 1973b ("The Atkins diet is nonsense...," 17).

McGovern hearings on "Sugar in the Diet...": Select Committee 1973a.

"We weren't thinking...": Interview, Kenneth Schlossberg.

McGovern's 1976 hearings on diet and disease: Select Committee 1976 ("overconsumption may be as serious...," 9).

"Particularly overconsumption of the wrong things...": Ibid.:10.

"general rule of thumb": Ibid.:1920.

"I think what we need...": Ibid.

"carbohydrate-deficiency syndrome...": Astrup et al. 1994. See also Golay and Bobbioni 1997.

Proceedings of the UCSF conference: Wilson 1969. "Positive caloric balance...": Lepkovsky 1969:95. Navy "ketogenic" diet study: Piscatel i et al. 1969 ("significant weight loss," 185; "Uniformly and without...," 188).

Proceedings of Obesity a.s.sociation of Great Britain conference: McLean Baird and Howard 1969. "This weight gain was control ed...": Craddock in discussion period, in McLean Baird and Howard 1989:124.

Howard became interested in carbohydrate restriction: Interview, Alan Howard. "A common feature of al ...": Howard 1969:104.

Proceedings of the Paris conference: Apfelbaum 1973. The INSERM presentation: Debry et al. 1973 ("lowering the carbohydrate").

Proceedings of the NIH conference: Bray ed. 1976a. Presentations on physical activity: Lutwak and Coulson 1976; Bjorntorp 1976. On behavioral modification: Stuart 1976; Stunkard 1976c. On fasting: Drenick 1976 ("our experiences...," 358). Young on diet: Young 1976.

Young's presentation: Young 1976 ("weight loss, fat loss...," 365; "No adequate...," 364).