"carbohydrate factor": Ibid.

Measurement of total cholesterol: Ibid. ("false and highly...," 281; "generalizations such as...," 273); Gofman et al. 1958 ("Neglect of...," 45). 157 "that the lipemic plasma...": Ahrens et al. 1961. "The percent of fat...": Joslin 1927.

"an exaggerated form...": Ahrens et al. 1961.

"especial y in the areas...": Ibid. "We know of no solid...": Ahrens et al. 1957.

Peters a "contrarian": Interview, Margaret Albrink. Albrink's research: Albrink 1963; Albrink 1962.

"Rockefel er Inst.i.tute Report...": Osmundsen 1961. "...brought the house down...": Interview, Margaret Albrink.

Albrink's results confirmed: Kuo 1967; Carlson and Bottiger 1972; Goldstein et al. 1973. JAMA published an editorial: Anon. 1967.

No consideration to alternative hypothesis: See Bishop 1961; Baker et al. 1963. Seven Countries Study: Keys 1970:I-7.

Five-part NEJM series: Fredrickson et al. 1967ae. 161 Four of the five lipoprotein disorders: Fredrickson et al. 1967c:149 (table 2). Warned against low-fat diets: See, for instance, Fredrickson et al. 1967b:219. "sometimes considered synonymous...": Fredrickson et al. 1967a:273. "Patients with this syndrome...": Lees and Wilson 1971. Footnote. Select Committee 1976:37.

HDL protection against heart disease proposed: Barr et al. 1951a and b. Confirmed: See, for instance, Nikkila 1953; Gofman et al. 1966; Levy et al.

1966.

"negative relation...": Gordon 1988. Footnote. Gordon 1988; Interview, Tavia Gordon.

Controls from al five populations: Castel i et al. 1977. Evidence from Framingham alone: Gordon et al. 1977 ("total cholesterol per se...," 712; "marginal,"

710).162 "striking" revelation and "Of al the lipoproteins...": Gordon et al. 1977:707.

"fragmentary information...": Castel i et al. 1977. See also Hul ey et al. 1972.

HDL directing attention away from triglycerides: See Hul ey et al. 1980.

"...greeted with a silence...": Interview, Tavia Gordon.

"the findings re-emphasize...": Brody 1977.

VA twenty-center trial of gemfibrozil: Rubins et al. 1999.

Lowering LDL appears more important: See, for instance, NCEP 2002:I -11.

"Whatever the underlying disorder...": Kannel et al. 1979.

Justifying total-cholesterol measurements: Gordon 1988. "marginal risk factor": Gordon et al. 1977:710. "powerful predictor" and "a significant contribution...": Kannel et al. 1979. Footnote. NCEP 2002:I -1.

"lipid profile": See, for instance, Kannel and Castel i 1979. Added little predictive power: Gordon et al. 1977:710 (table VI I).

"from a practical point of view...": Gordon et al. 1977:712.

"In the search...": Kannel et al. 1979.

Rarely mentioned carbohydrates: See Chait et al. 1993. Footnote. "that epidemiological studies have...": Chait et al. 1993:3014.

Monounsaturated fats: Mattson and Grundy 1985; Grundy 1986. Keys a.s.sumed neutrality: Keys et al. 1957. Never been tested: Interview, Scott Grundy.

Lyon Diet Heart Trial: Lorgeril et al. 1999. GISSI-Prevenzione: Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio del a Sopravvivenza nel 'Infarto Miocardico 1999.

Stearic acid metabolizes to oleic: Grundy 1994. A good review of the effects of different fats on LDL and HDL cholesterol can be found in Katan et al.

1995.

"Everything should be made...": Shapiro 2006:231. This quote may be a paraphrase of the fol owing statement: "The supreme goal of al theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience" (see http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein).

"marginal risk factor": Gordon et al. 1977:710. Only a few percentage points higher: Castel i et al. 1977. "If you look in the literature...": Ibid.

AHA nutrition guidelines: Krauss et al. 1996; Krauss et al. 2000. "30-percent-fat recommendation...": Interview, Ronald Krauss.

"this conventional notion...":Ibid.

"blazingly obvious...": Ibid. Footnote. Adams and Schumaker 1969; Hammond and Fisher 1971.

Krauss's three papers: Shen et al. 1981; Krauss and Burke 1982; Teng et al. 1983. "remarkable heterogeneity...": Interview, Ronald Krauss. 172 First report of apo B elevation in heart-disease patients: Sniderman et al. 1980. Disproportionate elevation in apo B: Teng et al. 1983.

Smal , dense LDL more atherogenic: Teng et al. 1983. "little bits of sand": Interview, Al an Sniderman. Role of oxidized LDL: Witztum and Steinberg 1991.

Pattern A and B and the atherogenic profile: Austin et al. 1988. Diabetics have identical pattern: See Chait and Bierman 1994.

Diet and the atherogenic profile: See Krauss 2005 for a recent review. "average American diet": Interview, Ronald Krauss. The more saturated fat: Dreon et al. 1998.

Renamed atherogenic dyslipidemia: See, for instance, Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004.

"Wel , I would rather...": Interview, Melissa Austin.

Best predictor apo B: Wal dius et al. 2001. "doesn't tel you anything...": Interview, Goran Wal dius. 175 LDL clearance and disposal mechanism: Brown and Goldstein 1985.

For an overal review of VLDL and LDL metabolism and how to increase LDL cholesterol by increasing VLDL, see Mayes and Botham 2004. See also Berneis and Krauss 2002; DeFronzo 1992.

"It's the overproduction of VLDL...": Interview, Ernst Schaefer.

Krauss's model: Berneis and Krauss 2002.

"I am now convinced...": Interview, Ronald Krauss.

Ahrens on high-carbohydrate diets in undernourished populations: Ahrens et al. 1961.

Poverty in the Mediterranean after World War I : See, for instance, Al baugh 1953.

CHAPTER TEN:.

THE ROLE OF INSULIN.

Epigraph. "The suppression of inconvenient...": Greene 1953.

Vague on "android obesity," etc.: Vague 1956.

Gofman on the obesity/heart-disease a.s.sociation: Gofman and Young 1963.

Speculation voiced by Joslin: Joslin 1928:103. Man and Peters measured cholesterol: Man and Peters 1935. Albrink reported: Albrink et al. 1962.

Joslin's similar observation: Joslin et al. 1959:275. Albrink confirmed Gofman's observation: Albrink and Meigs 1965.

"abnormal metabolic patterns": Albrink 1963.

"purified carbohydrates": Albrink 1965.

Arcane tests before 1960: Interviews, Gerold Grodsky and Roger Unger. "a revolution in...": Karolinska Inst.i.tute 1977.

Yalow and Berson showed: Yalow and Berson 1960. Obese had elevated insulin levels: Yalow et al. 1965.

Insulin-resistant: Berson and Yalow 1965; Berson and Yalow 1970 ("a state...," 389).

"it is desirable...": Berson and Yalow 1970:390.

Reaven began his investigations: Reaven et al. 1963.

Reaven's two-part hypothesis: Interview, Gerald Reaven.

Reaven and Farquhar had reported: Farquhar et al. 1966; Reaven et al. 1967.

Working to establish validity of hypothesis: See Reaven and Olefsky 1978. First insulin-resistance test: Shen et al. 1970. DeFronzo refined the "gold standard": DeFronzo et al. 1979.

Reaven's Banting Lecture: Reaven 1988 ("Although this concept...").

Three Framingham-like studies: Eschwege et al. 1985; Pyorala 1979; Welborn and Wearne 1979.

"a whole host of...": Interview, Ralph DeFronzo. NCEP diagnostic criteria: NCEP 2002:I -27.

Reaven's article on Syndrome X: Reaven and Chen 1996.

Silverman on Reaven's results: Quoted in Kolata 1987.

Cognitive dissonance: Festinger 1957. Kuhn 1970:7791 ("the awareness...," 81; "They wil devise...," 78).

Krauss and Reaven reported: Reaven et al. 1993. "coequal partner...": NCEP 2002:I -26.

Metabolic syndrome official y entered: See NCEP 2002 ("the primary driving force...," I -36; "ma.s.s elevations...," I -28); Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004; Grundy, Brewer, et al. 2004. Grundy acknowledged: Interview, Scott Grundy.

"commonly in persons...": NCEP 2002:I -11. Footnote. Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004 ("very high-carbohydrate...," 553).

CHAPTER ELEVEN:.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIABETES.

Epigraph. "Does carbohydrate cause...": Joslin 1927.

"extraordinarily high incidence": Bradley 1971:446.

"numerous and as yet...": Ibid.:460.

a.s.sumption that saturated fat is the nutritional agent: USDHHS 1988:25758 ("The frequent...," 258). The ADA recommendations: ADA 1971.

Atherogenic American diet high in fat and salt: NCEP 2002:I -18.

The vascular complications of diabetes: Donnel y et al. 2000.

"the effects of insulin...": Feener and Dzau 2005:874. "another possibility...": Johnstone and Nesto 2005:978.

First reported in rabbits: Duff and McMil an 1949. In chickens: Katz et al. 1958 ("one factor...").

In dogs: Cruz et al. 1961.

Stout published studies: Stout 1968; Stout and Val ance-Owen 1969 ("ingestion of large quant.i.ties..." and "The carbohydrate is disposed..."); Stout 1969; Stout 1970; Stout et al. 1975. Footnote. "atherogenic hormone": DeFronzo 1997.

For a good review of the oxidative stress hypothesis, see Giugliano et al. 1996.

"conform to a tightly...": Bunn and Higgins 1981.

For a relatively simple discussion of glycation and AGEs, see Cerami et al. 1987. My discussion of AGEs was also based on interviews with John Baynes, Michael Brownel , Frank Bunn, Anthony Cerami, Vincent Monnier, Ben Szwergold, and Helen Vla.s.sara.

Cerami's work on hemoglobin A1c: Koenig et al. 1976. Bunn's work: Gabbay et al. 1977. See also Bunn et al. 1978.

AGEs and the eye: See St.i.tt 2001. AGEs and other diabetic complications: See Singh et al. 2001 for a review.

AGEs, col agen, and diabetes as accelerated aging: Monnier et al. 1984.

"If you remove the aorta...": Interview, Anthony Cerami.

Oxidized LDL and heart disease: Steinberg 1997. Oxidized LDL, reactive oxygen species and glycation: Bucala et al. 1993. "markedly elevated": St.i.tt et al. 1997. Footnote. "rendering the HDL...": Hedrick et al. 2000.