aenigma may be distinguished from the British T. tetraedra, by the surface having the ribs sharp and well-defined to the beak, whilst in the British species they become obsolete and smoothed down; but this difference is not constant. Professor Forbes adds, that, possibly, internal characters may exist, which would distinguish the American species from its European allies.

Spirifer linguiferoides, E. Forbes.

Professor Forbes states that this species is very near to S. linguifera of Phillips (a carboniferous limestone fossil), but probably distinct. M.

d'Orbigny considers it as perhaps indicating the Jura.s.sic period.

Ammonites, imperfect impression of.

M. Domeyko has sent to France a collection of fossils, which, I presume, from the description given, must have come from the neighbourhood of Arqueros; they consist of:--

Pecten Dufreynoyi, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Ostrea hemispherica, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Turritella Andii, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal. (Pleurotomaria Humboldtii of Von Buch).

Hippurites Chilensis, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

The specimens of this Hippurite, as well as those I collected in my descent from Arqueros, are very imperfect; but in M. d'Orbigny's opinion they resemble, as does the Turritella Andii, cretaceous (upper greensand) forms.

Nautilus Domeykus, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Terebratula aenigma, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Terebratula ignaciana, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

This latter species was found by M. Domeyko in the same block of limestone with the T. aenigma. According to M. d'Orbigny, it comes near to T.

ornithocephala from the Lias. A series of this species collected at Guasco, has been examined by Professor E. Forbes, and he states that it is difficult to distinguish between some of the specimens and the T. hastata from the mountain limestone; and that it is equally difficult to draw a line between them and some Marlstone Terebratulae. Without a knowledge of the internal structure, it is impossible at present to decide on their ident.i.ty with a.n.a.logous European forms.

The remarks given on the several foregoing sh.e.l.ls, show that, in M.

d'Orbigny's opinion, the Pecten, Ostrea, Turritella, and Hippurite indicate the cretaceous period; and the Gryphaea appears to Professor Forbes to be identical with a species, a.s.sociated in Southern India with unquestionably cretaceous forms. On the other hand, the two Terebratulae and the Spirifer point, in the opinion both of M. d'Orbigny and Professor Forbes, to the oolitic series. Hence M. d'Orbigny, not having himself examined this country, has concluded that there are here two distinct formations; but the Spirifer and T. aenigma were certainly included in the same bed with the Pecten and Ostrea, whence I extracted them; and the geologist M. Domeyko sent home the two Terebratulae with the other-named sh.e.l.ls, from the same locality, without specifying that they came from different beds. Again, as we shall presently see, in a collection of sh.e.l.ls given me from Guasco, the same species, and others presenting a.n.a.logous differences, are mingled together, and are in the same condition; and lastly, in three places in the valley of Copiapo, I found some of these same species similarly grouped.

Hence there cannot be any doubt, highly curious though the fact be, that these several fossils, namely, the Hippurites, Gryphaea, Ostrea, Pecten, Turritella, Nautilus, two Terebratulae, and Spirifer all belong to the same formation, which would appear to form a pa.s.sage between the oolitic and cretaceous systems of Europe. Although aware how unusual the term must sound, I shall, for convenience' sake, call this formation cretaceo- oolitic. Comparing the sections in this valley of Coquimbo with those in the Cordillera described in the last chapter, and bearing in mind the character of the beds in the intermediate district of Los Hornos, there is certainly a close general mineralogical resemblance between them, both in the underlying porphyritic conglomerate, and in the overlying gypseous formation. Considering this resemblance, and that the fossils from the Puente del Inca at the base of the gypseous formation, and throughout the greater part of its entire thickness on the Peuquenes range, indicate the Neocomian period,--that is, the dawn of the cretaceous system, or, as some have believed, a pa.s.sage between this latter and the oolitic series--I conclude that probably the gypseous and a.s.sociated beds in all the sections. .h.i.therto described, belong to the same great formation, which I have denominated--cretaceo-oolitic. I may add, before leaving Coquimbo, that M.

Gay found in the neighbouring Cordillera, at the height of 14,000 feet above the sea, a fossiliferous formation, including a Trigonia and Pholadomya (D'Orbigny "Voyage" Part Geolog. page 242.);--both of which genera occur at the Puente del Inca.

COQUIMBO TO GUASCO.

The rocks near the coast, and some way inland, do not differ from those described northwards of Valparaiso: we have much greenstone, syenite, feldspathic and jaspery slate, and grauwackes having a basis like that of claystone; there are some large tracts of granite, in which the const.i.tuent minerals are sometimes arranged in folia, thus composing an imperfect gneiss. There are two large districts of mica-schists, pa.s.sing into glossy clay-slate, and resembling the great formation in the Chonos Archipelago.

In the valley of Guasco, an escarpment of porphyritic conglomerate is first seen high up the valley, about two leagues eastward of the town of Ballenar. I heard of a great gypseous formation in the Cordillera; and a collection of sh.e.l.ls made there was given me. These sh.e.l.ls are all in the same condition, and appear to have come from the same bed: they consist of:--

Turritella Andii, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Pecten Dufreynoyi, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Terebatula ignaciana, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

The relations of these species have been given under the head of Coquimbo.

Terebratula aenigma, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

This sh.e.l.l M. d'Orbigny does not consider identical with his T. aenigma, but near to T. obsoleta. Professor Forbes thinks that it is certainly a variety of T. aenigma: we shall meet with this variety again at Copiapo.

Spirifer Chilensis, E. Forbes.

Professor Forbes remarks that this fossil resembles several carboniferous limestone Spirifers; and that it is also related to some lia.s.sic species, as S. Wolcotii.

If these sh.e.l.ls had been examined independently of the other collections, they would probably have been considered, from the characters of the two Terebratulae, and from the Spirifer, as oolitic; but considering that the first species, and according to Professor Forbes, the four first, are identical with those from Coquimbo, the two formations no doubt are the same, and may, as I have said, be provisionally called cretaceo-oolitic.

VALLEY OF COPIAPO.

The journey from Guasco to Copiapo, owing to the utterly desert nature of the country, was necessarily so hurried, that I do not consider my notes worth giving. In the valley of Copiapo some of the sections are very interesting. From the sea to the town of Copiapo, a distance estimated at thirty miles, the mountains are composed of greenstone, granite, andesite, and blackish porphyry, together with some dusky-green feldspathic rocks, which I believe to be altered clay-slate: these mountains are crossed by many brown-coloured dikes, running north and south. Above the town, the main valley runs in a south-east and even more southerly course towards the Cordillera, where it is divided into three great ravines, by the northern one of which, called Jolquera, I penetrated for a short distance. The section, Section 1/3 in Plate 1, gives an eye-sketch of the structure and composition of the mountains on both sides of this valley: a straight east and west line from the town to the Cordillera is perhaps not more than thirty miles, but along the valley the distance is much greater. Wherever the valley trended very southerly, I have endeavoured to contract the section into its true proportion. This valley, I may add, rises much more gently than any other valley which I saw in Chile.

To commence with our section, for a short distance above the town we have hills of the granitic series, together with some of that rock [A], which I suspect to be altered clay-slate, but which Professor G. Rose, judging from specimens collected by Meyen at P. Negro, states is serpentine pa.s.sing into greenstone. We then come suddenly to the great gypseous formation [B], without having pa.s.sed over, differently from, in all the sections. .h.i.therto described, any of the porphyritic conglomerate. The strata are at first either horizontal or gently inclined westward; then highly inclined in various directions, and contorted by underlying ma.s.ses of intrusive rocks; and lastly, they have a regular eastward dip, and form a tolerably well p.r.o.nounced north and south line of hills. This formation consists of thin strata, with innumerable alternations, of black, calcareous slate-rock, of calcareo-aluminous stones like those at Coquimbo, which I have called pseudo-honestones of green jaspery layers, and of pale-purplish, calcareous, soft rotten-stone, including seams and veins of gypsum. These strata are conformably overlaid by a great thickness of thinly stratified, compact limestone with included crystals of carbonate of lime. At a place called Tierra Amarilla, at the foot of a mountain thus composed there is a broad vein, or perhaps stratum, of a beautiful and curious crystallised mixture, composed, according to Professor G. Rose, of sulphate of iron under two forms, and of the sulphates of copper and alumina (Meyen's "Reise" etc. Th. 1, s. 394.): the section is so obscure that I could not make out whether this vein or stratum occurred in the gypseous formation, or more probably in some underlying ma.s.ses [A], which I believe are altered clay-slate.

SECOND AXIS OF ELEVATION.

After the gypseous ma.s.ses [B], we come to a line of hills of unstratified porphyry [C], which on their eastern side blend into strata of great thickness of porphyritic conglomerate, dipping eastward. This latter formation, however, here has not been nearly so much metamorphosed as in most parts of Central Chile; it is composed of beds of true purple claystone porphyry, repeatedly alternating with thick beds of purplish-red conglomerate with the well-rounded, large pebbles of various porphyries, not blended together.

THIRD AXIS OF ELEVATION.

Near the ravine of Los Hornitos, there is a well-marked line of elevation, extending for many miles in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction, with the strata dipping in most parts (as in the second axis) only in one direction, namely, eastward at an average angle of between 30 and 40 degrees. Close to the mouth of the valley, however, there is, as represented in the section, a steep and high mountain [D], composed of various green and brown intrusive porphyries enveloped with strata, apparently belonging to the upper parts of the porphyritic conglomerate, and dipping both eastward and westward. I will describe the section seen on the eastern side of this mountain [D], beginning at the base with the lowest bed visible in the porphyritic conglomerate, and proceeding upwards through the gypseous formation. Bed 1 consists of reddish and brownish porphyry varying in character, and in many parts highly amygdaloidal with carbonate of lime, and with bright green and brown bole. Its upper surface is throughout clearly defined, but the lower surface is in most parts indistinct, and towards the summit of the mountain [D] quite blended into the intrusive porphyries. Bed 2, a pale lilac, hard but not heavy stone, slightly laminated, including small extraneous fragments, and imperfect as well as some perfect and gla.s.sy crystals of feldspar; from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in thickness. When examining it in situ, I thought it was certainly a true porphyry, but my specimens now lead me to suspect that it possibly may be a metamorphosed tuff. From its colour it could be traced for a long distance, overlying in one part, quite conformably to the porphyry of bed 1, and in another not distant part, a very thick ma.s.s of conglomerate, composed of pebbles of a porphyry chiefly like that of bed 1: this fact shows how the nature of the bottom formerly varied in short horizontal distances. Bed 3, white, much indurated tuff, containing minute pebbles, broken crystals, and scales of mica, varies much in thickness.

This bed is remarkable from containing many globular and pear-shaped, externally rusty b.a.l.l.s, from the size of an apple to a man's head, of very tough, slate-coloured porphyry, with imperfect crystals of feldspar: in shape these b.a.l.l.s do not resemble pebbles, AND I BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE SUBAQUEOUS VOLCANIC BOMBS; they differ from SUBAERIAL bombs only in not being vesicular. Bed 4; a dull purplish-red, hard conglomerate, with crystallised particles and veins of carbonate of lime, from three hundred to four hundred feet in thickness. The pebbles are of claystone porphyries of many varieties; they are tolerably well rounded, and vary in size from a large apple to a man's head. This bed includes three layers of coa.r.s.e, black, calcareous, somewhat slaty rock: the upper part pa.s.ses into a compact red sandstone.

In a formation so highly variable in mineralogical nature, any division not founded on fossil remains, must be extremely arbitrary: nevertheless, the beds below the last conglomerate may, in accordance with all the sections. .h.i.therto described, be considered as belonging to the porphyritic conglomerate, and those above it to the gypseous formation, marked [E] in the section. The part of the valley in which the following beds are seen is near Potrero Seco. Bed 5, compact, fine-grained, pale greenish-grey, non- calcareous, indurated mudstone, easily fusible into a pale green and white gla.s.s. Bed 6, purplish, coa.r.s.e-grained, hard sandstone, with broken crystals of feldspar and crystallised particles of carbonate of lime; it possesses a slightly nodular structure. Bed 7, blackish-grey, much indurated, calcareous mudstone, with extraneous particles of unequal size; the whole being in parts finely brecciated. In this ma.s.s there is a stratum, twenty feet in thickness, of impure gypsum. Bed 8, a greenish mudstone, with several layers of gypsum. Bed 9, a highly indurated, easily fusible, white tuff, thickly mottled with ferruginous matter, and including some white semi-porcellanic layers, which are interlaced with ferruginous veins. This stone closely resembles some of the commonest varieties in the Uspallata chain. Bed 10, a thick bed of rather bright green, indurated mudstone or tuff, with a concretionary nodular structure so strongly developed that the whole ma.s.s consists of b.a.l.l.s. I will not attempt to estimate the thickness of the strata in the gypseous formation hitherto described, but it must certainly be very many hundred feet. Bed 11 is at least 800 feet in thickness: it consists of thin layers of whitish, greenish, or more commonly brown, fine-grained, indurated tuffs, which crumble into angular fragments: some of the layers are semi-porcellanic, many of them highly ferruginous, and some are almost composed of carbonate of lime and iron with drusy cavities lined with quartzf-crystals. Bed 12, dull purplish or greenish or dark-grey, very compact and much indurated mudstone: estimated at 1,500 feet in thickness: in some parts this rock a.s.sumes the character of an imperfect coa.r.s.e clay-slate; but viewed under a lens, the basis always has a mottled appearance, with the edges of the minute component particles blending together. Parts are calcareous, and there are numerous veins of highly crystalline carbonate of lime charged with iron. The ma.s.s has a nodular structure, and is divided by only a few planes of stratification: there are, however, two layers, each about eighteen inches thick, of a dark brown, finer-grained stone, having a conchoidal, semi-porcellanic fracture, which can be followed with the eye for some miles across the country.

I believe this last great bed is covered by other nearly similar alternations; but the section is here obscured by a tilt from the next porphyritic chain, presently to be described. I have given this section in detail, as being ill.u.s.trative of the general character of the mountains in this neighbourhood; but it must not be supposed that any one stratum long preserves the same character. At a distance of between only two and three miles the green mudstones and white indurated tuffs are to a great extent replaced by red sandstone and black calcareous shaly rocks, alternating together. The white indurated tuff, bed 11, here contains little or no gypsum, whereas on the northern and opposite side of the valley, it is of much greater thickness and abounds with layers of gypsum, some of them alternating with thin seams of crystalline carbonate of lime. The uppermost, dark-coloured, hard mudstone, bed 12, is in this neighbourhood the most constant stratum. The whole series differs to a considerable extent, especially in its upper part, from that met with at [BB], in the lower part of the valley; nevertheless, I do not doubt that they are equivalents.

FOURTH AXIS OF ELEVATION (VALLEY OF COPIAPO).

This axis is formed of a chain of mountains [F], of which the central ma.s.ses (near La Punta) consist of andesite containing green hornblende and coppery mica, and the outer ma.s.ses of greenish and black porphyries, together with some fine lilac-coloured claystone porphyry; all these porphyries being injected and broken up by small hummocks of andesite. The central great ma.s.s of this latter rock, is covered on the eastern side by a black, fine-grained, highly micaceous slate, which, together with the succeeding mountains of porphyry, are traversed by numerous white dikes, branching from the andesite, and some of them extending in straight lines, to a distance of at least two miles. The mountains of porphyry eastward of the micaceous schist soon, but gradually, a.s.sume (as observed in so many other cases) a stratified structure, and can then be recognised as a part of the porphyritic conglomerate formation. These strata [G] are inclined at a high angle to the S.E., and form a ma.s.s from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet in thickness. The gypseous ma.s.ses to the west already described, dip directly towards this axis, with the strata only in a few places (one of which is represented in the section) thrown from it: hence this fourth axis is mainly uniclinal towards the S.E., and just like our third axis, only locally anticlinal.

The above strata of porphyritic conglomerate [G] with their south-eastward dip, come abruptly up against beds of the gypseous formation [H], which are gently, but irregularly, inclined westward: so that there is here a synclinal axis and great fault. Further up the valley, here running nearly north and south, the gypseous formation is prolonged for some distance; but the stratification is unintelligible, the whole being broken up by faults, dikes, and metalliferous veins. The strata consist chiefly of red calcareous sandstones, with numerous veins in the place of layers, of gypsum; the sandstone is a.s.sociated with some black calcareous slate-rock, and with green pseudo-honestones, pa.s.sing into porcelain-jasper. Still further up the valley, near Las Amolanas [I], the gypseous strata become more regular, dipping at an angle of between 30 and 40 degrees to W.S.W., and conformably overlying, near the mouth of the ravine of Jolquera, strata [K] of porphyritic conglomerate. The whole series has been tilted by a partially concealed axis [L], of granite, andesite, and a granitic mixture of white feldspar, quartz, and oxide of iron.

FIFTH AXIS OF ELEVATION (VALLEY OF COPIAPO, NEAR LOS AMOLANAS).

I will describe in some detail the beds [I] seen here, which, as just stated, dip to W.S.W., at an angle of from 30 to 40 degrees. I had not time to examine the underlying porphyritic conglomerate, of which the lowest beds, as seen at the mouth of the Jolquera, are highly compact, with crystals of red oxide of iron; and I am not prepared to say whether they are chiefly of volcanic or metamorphic origin. On these beds there rests a coa.r.s.e purplish conglomerate, very little metamorphosed, composed of pebbles of porphyry, but remarkable from containing one pebble of granite;- -of which fact no instance has occurred in the sections. .h.i.therto described.

Above this conglomerate, there is a black siliceous claystone, and above it numerous alternations of dark-purplish and green porphyries, which may be considered as the uppermost limit of the porphyritic conglomerate formation.

Above these porphyries comes a coa.r.s.e, arenaceous conglomerate, the lower half white and the upper half of a pink colour, composed chiefly of pebbles of various porphyries, but with some of red sandstone and jaspery rocks. In some of the more arenaceous parts of the conglomerate, there was an oblique or current lamination; a circ.u.mstance which I did not elsewhere observe.

Above this conglomerate, there is a vast thickness of thinly stratified, pale-yellowish, siliceous sandstone, pa.s.sing into a granular quartz-rock, used for grindstones (hence the name of the place Las Amolanas), and certainly belonging to the gypseous formation, as does probably the immediately underlying conglomerate. In this yellowish sandstone there are layers of white and pale-red siliceous conglomerate; other layers with small, well-rounded pebbles of white quartz, like the bed at the R. Claro at Coquimbo; others of a greenish, fine-grained, less siliceous stone, somewhat resembling the pseudo-honestones lower down the valley; and lastly, others of a black calcareous shale-rock. In one of the layers of conglomerate, there was embedded a fragment of mica-slate, of which this is the first instance; hence perhaps, it is from a formation of mica-slate, that the numerous small pebbles of quartz, both here and at Coquimbo, have been derived. Not only does the siliceous sandstone include layers of the black, thinly stratified, not fissile, calcareous shale-rock, but in one place the whole ma.s.s, especially the upper part, was, in a marvellously short horizontal distance, after frequent alternations, replaced by it.

When this occurred, a mountain-ma.s.s, several thousand feet in thickness was thus composed; the black calcareous shale-rock, however, always included some layers of the pale-yellowish siliceous sandstone, of the red conglomerate, and of the greenish jaspery and pseudo-honestone varieties.

It likewise included three or four widely separated layers of a brown limestone, abounding with sh.e.l.ls immediately to be described. This pile of strata was in parts traversed by many veins of gypsum. The calcareous shale-rock, though when freshly broken quite black, weathers into an ash- colour: in which respect and in general appearance, it perfectly resembles those great fossiliferous beds of the Peuquenes range, alternating with gypsum and red sandstone, described in the last chapter.

The sh.e.l.ls out of the layers of brown limestone, included in the black calcareous shale-rock, which latter, as just stated, replaces the white siliceous sandstone, consist of:--

Pecten Dufreynoyi, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Turritella Andii, d'Orbigny, "Voyage" Part Pal.

Astarte Darwinii, E. Forbes.

Gryphaea Darwinii, E. Forbes.

An intermediate form between G. gigantea and G. incurva.

Gryphaea nov. spec.?, E. Forbes.

Perna Americana, E. Forbes.

Avicula, nov. spec.