"Nominal" horse-power is an arbitrary term in the sense in which it is used in England and America, where it is quite common. The manufacturers themselves do not seem to agree on its absolute value. A "nominal"

horse-power, however, is equal to anything from 3 to 4 "effective"

horse-power. The uncertainty which ensues from the use of the term should lead to its abandonment.

In installing a motor, the determination of its horse-power is a matter of grave importance, which should not be considered as if the motor were a steam-engine or an engine of some other type. It must not be forgotten that, especially at full load, explosion-engines are most efficient, and that, under these conditions, it will generally be advisable to subordinate the utility of having a reserve power to the economy which follows from the employment of a motor running at a load close to its maximum capacity. On the other hand, the gas-engine user is unwilling to believe that the stipulated horse-power of the motor which is sold to him is the greatest that it is capable of developing under industrial conditions. Business compet.i.tion has led some firms to sell their engines to meet these conditions. It is probably not stretching the truth too far to declare that 80 per cent. of the engines sold with no exact contract specifications are incapable of maintaining for more than a half hour the power which is attributed to them, and which the buyer expects. It follows that the power at which the engine is sold should be both industrially realized and maintained, if need be, for an entire day, without the engine's showing the slightest perturbation, or faltering in its silent and regular operation. To attain this end, it is essential that the energy developed by the engine in normal or constant operation should not exceed 90 to 95 per cent. of the maximum power which it is able to yield, and which may be termed its "utmost power".

As a general rule, especially for installations in which the power fluctuates from the lowest possible to double this, as much attention must be paid to the consumption at half load as at full load; and preference should be given to the engine which, other things being equal, will operate most economically at its lowest load. In this case the consumption per effective horse-power is appreciably higher.

Generally, this consumption is greater by 20 to 30 per cent. than that at full load. This is particularly true of the single-acting engines so widely used for horse-powers less than 100 to 150.

In some double or triple-acting engines, according to certain writers, the diminution in the consumption will hardly be proportional to the diminution of the power, or at any rate, the difference between the consumption per B.H.P. at full load and at reduced load will be less than in other engines. It should be observed, however, that this statement is apparently not borne out by experiments which the author has had occasion to make. To a slight degree, this economy is obtained at the cost of simplicity, and consequently, at the cost of the engine.

At all events, the engines have the merit of great cyclic regularity, rendering them serviceable for driving electric-light dynamos; but this regularity can also be attained by the use of the extra heavy fly-wheels which English firms, in particular, have introduced.

=Automatic Starting.=--When the gas-engine was first introduced, starting was effected simply by manually turning the fly-wheel until steady running was a.s.sured. This procedure, altogether too crude in its way, is attended with some danger. In a few countries it is prohibited by laws regulating the employment of industrial machinery. If the engine be of rather large size one, moreover, which operates at high pressure--such a method of starting is very troublesome. For these reasons, among others, manufacturers have devised automatic means of setting a gas-engine in motion.

Of such automatic devices, the first that shall be mentioned is a combination of pipes, provided with c.o.c.ks, by the manipulation of which, a certain amount of gas, drawn from the supply pipe, is introduced into the engine-cylinder. The piston is first placed in a suitable position, and behind it a mixture is formed which is ignited by a naked flame situated near a convenient orifice. When the explosion takes place the ignition-orifice is automatically closed, and the piston is given its motive impulse. The engine thus started continues to run in accordance with the regular recurrence of the cycles. In this system, starting is effected by the explosion of a mixture, without previous compression.

Some designers have devised a system of hand-pumps which compress in the cylinder a mixture of air and gas, ignited at the proper time by allowing it to come into contact with the igniter, through the manipulation of c.o.c.ks (Fig. 39).

These two methods are not absolutely effective. They require a certain deftness which can be acquired only after some practice. Furthermore, they are objectionable because the starting is effected too violently, and because the instantaneous explosion subjects the stationary piston, crank, and fly-wheel to a shock so sudden that they may be severely strained and may even break. Moreover, the slightest leakage in one of the valves or checks may cause the entire system to fail, and, particularly in the case of the pump, may induce a back explosion exceedingly dangerous to the man in charge of the engine.

These systems are now almost generally supplanted by the compressed-air system, which is simpler, less dangerous, and more certain in its effect.

The elements comprising the system in question include essentially a reservoir of thick sheet iron, capable of resisting a pressure of 180 to 225 pounds and sufficient in capacity to start an engine several times.

This reservoir is connected with the engine by piping, which is disposed in one of two ways, depending upon whether the reservoir is charged by the engine itself operatively connected with the compressor, or by an independent compressor, mechanically operated.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 39.--Tangye starter.]

In the first case, the pipe is provided with a stop-c.o.c.k, mounted adjacent to the cylinder, and with a check-valve. When the engine is started and the gas cut off, the air is drawn in at each cycle and driven back into the reservoir during the period of compression. When the engine, running under these conditions by reason of the inertia of the fly-wheel, begins to slow down, the check-valve is closed and the gas-admission valve opened, so as to produce several explosions and to impart a certain speed to the engine in order to continue the charging of the reservoir with compressed air. This done, the valve on the reservoir itself is tightly closed, as well as the check-valve, so as to avoid any leakage likely to cause a fall in the reservoir's pressure.

In the second case, which applies particularly to engines of more than 50 horse-power, the charging pipe connected with the reservoir is necessarily independent of the pipe by means of which the motor is started. The reservoir having been filled and the decompression cam thrown into gear, starting is accomplished:

1. By placing the piston in starting position, which corresponds with a crank inclination of 10 to 20 degrees in the direction of the piston's movement, from the rear dead center, immediately after the period of compression;

2. By opening the reservoir-valve;

3. By allowing the compressed air to enter the cylinder rapidly, through the quick manipulation of the stop-c.o.c.k, which is closed again when the impulse is given and reopened at the corresponding period of the following cycle, this operation being repeated several times in order to impart sufficient speed to the motor;

4. By opening the gas-valve and finally closing the two valves of the compressed-air pipe.

The pipes and compressed-air reservoirs should be perfectly tight. The reservoirs should have a capacity in inverse ratio to the pressure under which they are placed, _i.e._, they increase in size as the pressure decreases. If, for example, the reservoirs should be operated normally at a pressure of 105 to 120 pounds per square inch, their capacity should be at least five or six times the volume of the engine-cylinder.

If these reservoirs are charged by the engine itself, the pressure will always be less by 15 to 20 per cent. than that of the compression.

CHAPTER III

THE INSTALLATION OF AN ENGINE

In the preceding chapter the various structural details of an engine have been summarized and those arrangements indicated which, from a general standpoint, seem most commendable. No particular system has been described in order that this manual might be kept within proper limits.

Moreover, the best-known writers, such as Hutton, Hisc.o.x, Pa.r.s.ell and Weed, in America; Aime Witz, in France; Dugald Clerk, Frederick Grover, and the late Bryan Donkin, in England; Guldner, Schottler, Thering, in Germany, have published very full descriptive works on the various types of engines.

We shall now consider the various methods which seem preferable in installing an engine. The directions to be given, the author believes, have not been hitherto published in any work, and are here formulated, after an experience of fifteen years, acquired in testing over 400 engines of all kinds, and in studying the methods of the leading gas-engine-building firms in the chief industrial centers of Europe and America.

=Location.=--The engine should be preferably located in a well-lighted place, accessible for inspection and maintenance, and should be kept entirely free from dust. As a general rule, the engine s.p.a.ce should be enclosed. An engine should not be located in a cellar, on a damp floor, or in badly illuminated and ventilated places.

=Gas-Pipes.=--The pipes by which fuel is conducted to engines, driven by street-gas, and the gas-bags, etc., are rarely altogether free from leakage. For this reason, the engine-room should be as well ventilated as possible in the interest of safety. Long lines of pipe between the meter and the engine should be avoided, for the sake of economy, since the chances for leakage increase with the length of the pipe. It seldom happens that the leakage of a pipe 30 to 50 feet long, supplying a 30 horse-power engine, is much less than 90 cubic feet per hour. The beneficial effect of short supply pipes between meter and engine on the running of the engine is another point to be kept in mind.

An engine should be supplied with gas as cool as possible, which condition is seldom realized if long pipe lines be employed, extending through workshops, the temperature of which is usually higher than that of underground piping. On the other hand, pipes should not be exposed to the freezing temperature of winter, since the frost formed within the pipe, and particularly the crystalline deposition of naphthaline, reduces the cross section and sometimes clogs the pa.s.sage. Often it happens that water condenses in the pipes; consequently, the piping should be disposed so as to obviate inclines, in which the water can collect in pockets. An acc.u.mulation of water is usually manifested by fluctuations in the flame of the burner. In places where water can collect, a drain-c.o.c.k should be inserted. In places exposed to frost, a c.o.c.k or a plug should be provided, so that a liquid can be introduced to dissolve the naphthaline. To insure the perfect operation of the engine, as well as to avoid fluctuations in nearby lights, pipes having a large diameter should preferably be employed. The cross-section should not be less than that of the discharge-pipe of the meter, selected in accordance with the prescriptions of the following table:

GAS-METERS.

Table Headings-- Column A: Capacity.

Column B: Normal hourly flow.

Column C: Height.

Column D: Width.

Column E: Depth.

Column F: Diameter of pipe.

Column G: Power of engine to be fed.

_________________________________________________________________

Dimension in inches.

_______________________________________

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

________

_________

_________

__________

__________

_______

______

burners

cu. ft.

h.-p.

3

14.726

13

11

9-13/16

0.590

1/2 5

24.710

18

13-3/4

10-5/8

0.787

3/4 10

49.420

21-1/4

18-1/2

12-9/16

0.984

1-2 20

98.840

23-3/16

19-11/16

15-5/16

1.181

3-4 30

148.260

25-5/8

21-11/16

18-3/16

1.456

5-6 50

247.100

29-1/2

24-5/16

20-7/16

1.592

7-10 60

296.520

30-5/16

25-5/8

25-5/8

1.671

11-14 80

395.360

33-5/16

30-5/16

27-1/8

1.968

15-19 100

494.200

35

33-7/16

29-15/16

1.968

20-25 150

741.300

40-3/16

40-3/16

33-13/16

30-40 ________

_________

_________

__________

__________

_______

______

The records made are exact only when the meters (Fig. 40) are installed and operated under normal conditions. Two chief causes tend to falsify the measurements in wet meters: (1) evaporation of the water, (2) the failure to have the meter level.

Evaporation occurs incessantly, owing to the flowing of the gas through the apparatus, and increases with a rise in the temperature of the atmosphere surrounding the meter. Consequently this temperature must be kept down, for which reason the meter should be placed as near the ground as possible. The evaporation also increases with the volume of gas delivered. Hence the meter should not supply more than the volume for which it was intended. In order to facilitate the return of the water of condensation to the meter and to prevent its acc.u.mulation, the pipes should be inclined as far as possible toward the meter. The lowering of the water-level in the meter benefits the consumer at the expense of the gas company.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 40.--Wet gas-meter.]

Inclination from the horizontal has an effect that varies with the direction of inclination. If the meter be inclined forward, or from left to right, the water can flow out by the lateral opening at the level, and incorrect measurements are made to the consumer's cost.

During winter, the meter should be protected from cold. The simplest way to accomplish this, is to wrap substances around the meter which are poor conductors of heat, such as straw, hay, rags, cotton, and the like.

Freezing of the water can also be prevented by the addition of alcohol in the proportion of 2 pints per burner. The water is thus enabled to withstand a temperature of about 5 degrees F. below zero. Instead of alcohol, glycerine in the same proportions can be employed, care being taken that the glycerine is neutral, in order that the meter may not be attacked by the acids which the liquid sometimes contains.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 41.--Dry gas-meter.]

=Dry Meters.=--Dry meters are employed chiefly in cold climates, where wet meters could be protected only with difficulty and where the water is likely to freeze. In the United States the dry meter is the type most widely employed. In Sweden and in Holland it is also generally introduced (Fig. 41).

In the matter of accuracy of measurement there is little, if any, difference between wet and dry meters. The dry meter has the merit of measuring correctly regardless of the fluctuations in the water level.

On the other hand, it is open to the objection of absorbing somewhat more pressure than the wet meter, after having been in operation for a certain length of time. This is an objection of no great weight; for there is always enough pressure in the mains and pipes to operate a meter.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 42.--Section through a dry gas-meter.]

In many cases, where the employment of non-freezing liquids is necessary, the dry meter may be used to advantage, since all such liquids have more or less corroding effect on sheet lead and even tin, depending upon the composition of the gas.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 43.--Section through a dry gas-meter.]

The dry meter comprises two bellows, operating in a casing divided into two compartments by a central part.i.tion. The gas is distributed on one or the other side of the bellows, by slides _B_. The slides _B_ are provided with cranks _E_, controlled by levers _M_, actuated by transmission shafts _O_, driven by the bellows. The meter is adjusted by a screw which changes the throw of the cranks _E_ and consequently affects the bellows. The movement of the crank-shaft _D_ is transmitted to the indicating apparatus. In order to obviate any leakage, this shaft pa.s.ses through a stuffing-box, _G_. The diagrams (Figs. 42-43) show the construction of a dry meter, the arrows indicating the course taken by the gas.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 44.--Rubber bag to prevent fluctuations of the ignition flame.]