[1949] _Ibid._, 173.

[1950] Petri, _Anthropology_ (_russ._), 435.

[1951] _Archiv f. Anthrop._, XXIX, 169.

[1952] _Globus_, LXXXVII, 130.

[1953] Oliphant, _China and Japan_, II, 494.

[1954] _Vererbung und Auslese_, 200.

[1955] Tiele-Gehrich, _Relig. in Alterthume_, I, 169.

[1956] Herod., I, 199; Hosea iv. 14; W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 454.

[1957] W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 141.

[1958] Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific Coast_, II, 305, 308-309.

[1959] Schrader, _Prehist. Antiq. of the Aryans_, 422.

[1960] Hopkins, _Relig. of India_, 363, 450.

[1961] Maspero, _Peuples de l'Orient_, I, 680.

[1962] Maspero, _Peuples de l'Orient_, I, 123.

[1963] _Relig. of the Semites_, 365.

[1964] _Ibid._, 366, 375.

[1965] Cf. Deut. xviii. 10; 2 Kings xvi. 3; xxi. 6.

[1966] Levit. xviii. 21; Deut. xviii. 10. Molech is a false word.

It has the consonants of the word for "king" and the vowels of the word for "shameful thing" (W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 67).

[1967] 2 Kings xvi. 3; xvii. 7; xxi. 6; xxiii. 10.

[1968] Ex. xxii. 29.

[1969] Ex. xxxiv. 20.

[1970] Num. xviii. 15.

[1971] Ex. iv. 24.

[1972] Jer. xxxii. 35; Ezek. xx. 26, 31. According to 2 Chron.

xxviii. 3, Ahaz offered his son in the stress of war (Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, _Relig. of Israel_).

[1973] _Globus_, LXXXVI, 321.

[1974] _Globus_, LXXXVI, 117-119.

[1975] Possibly 2 Kings iii. 27; 2 Chron. xxviii. 3; Pietschmann, _Phoenizier_, 167.

[1976] W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 465.

[1977] _Ibid._, 370.

[1978] Tiele-Gehrich, _Relig. im Alterthum_, I, 212, 240; Maspero, _Peuples de l'Orient_, I, 680; Sanchuniathon apud Euseb., _Prep. Evang._, I, 10.

[1979] Pietschmann, _Phoenizier_, 229.

[1980] Tertullian, _Apol._, 9.

[1981] Pietschmann, _Phoenizier_, 222.

[1982] Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 6.

[1983] _De Gubernat. Dei_, VII, 72-77; cf. VII, 15-16, 27, 86, 97-100.

[1984] Barton, _Semitic Origins_, 300.

[1985] Dubois, _Moeurs de l'Inde_, 439.

[1986] Darmstetter, _Zend-Avesta_, I, 100, 102.

CHAPTER XVII

POPULAR SPORTS, EXHIBITIONS, AND DRAMA

Limits of the study, Introduction.--Literature and drama in ethology.--Public amusements of the uncivilized; reversion to archaic, "natural" ways.--Chaldean and Mexican myths of reproduction dramatically represented.--Limit of toleration for propriety in exhibitions.--Origin of the Athenian drama.--Drama and worship; customs derived from the mysteries.--The word "God."--Kinship yields to religion as social tie.--Religion and drama; syncretism.--Beginnings of the theater at Rome.-- Gladiatorial exhibitions.--Spread of gladiatorial exhibitions.-- The folk drama.--The popular taste; realism; conventionality; satire.--Popular exhibitions.--Ancient popular festivals.--The _mimus_.--Modern analogies.--Biologs and ethologs.--Dickens as a biolog.--Early Jewish plays.--The Roman _mimus_.--_The Suffering Christ_; _Pseudo-querolus_.--The _mimus_ and Christianity.--Popular phantasms.--Effects of vicious amusements.--Gladiatorial games.--Compromise between the church and popular customs.--The _cantica_.--Passion for the games.-- German sports.--The _mimus_ from the third to the eighth century.--The drama in the Orient.--Marionettes.--The drama in India.--Punch in the West.--Resistance of the church to the drama.--Hrotsvitha.--The jongleurs; processions.--Adam de la Halle.--The flagellants.--Use of churches for dramatic exhibitions.--Protest against misuse of churches.--Toleration of jests by the ecclesiastics.--Fictitious literature.-- Romances of roguery.--Picaresque novels.--Books of beggars.-- At the beginning of the sixteenth century.--The theater at Venice.--Dancing; public sports.--Women in the theater and on the stage.--The _commedia del arte_.--Jest books; Italian comedy at Paris.--_Commedia del arte_ in Italy.--Summary and review.--Amusements need the control of educated judgment and will.--Amusements do not satisfy the current notions of progress.

+Limits.+ The cases of public amusement and entertainment which shall here be mentioned are such as were within the limits of usage and accepted propriety at the time. They are not cases of vice or of disputed propriety at the time. Drunkenness, gambling, bull baiting, cockfighting, and prize fighting are amusements which have entered into the mores of groups and subgroups, as bullfighting still does in Spain, but they were limited to classes or groups, or they were important on account of the excess, or they were disapproved by great numbers or by the ecclesiastical authorities. They would, therefore, lie outside the mores, to which the cases to be noticed belonged. The theater in England in Charles II's time testified to a depraved taste and a low standard of morals, but it was temporary and indeed limited in time. In different groups also the moral standards are unequal at the same time, and the mores are on different levels. There is a wider limit now for romances and dramas in France than in English-speaking countries. The cases which now interest us are those of long and wide currency, which the mores have firmly established according to current standards, even though moralists may have inveighed against them sometimes, as the same class now sometimes denounces all dancing.

The cases here to be noticed are further illustrations of the fact that the mores can make anything right, and can protect anything from condemnation, in addition to those in the last two chapters.

+614. Literature and drama in ethology.+ Poetry, drama, and literary fiction are useful to ethology in one or the other of two ways: (1) they reveal facts of the mores; (2) they show the longings and ideals of the group,--in short, what the people like and wish for. The second division includes mythology, fairy tales, and extravaganzas. The taste for them, if it exists, is a feature of the mores, but in fact such a taste is hardly ever popular. It is a product of culture. Myths, legends, proverbs, fables, riddles, etc., are popular products.

+615. Public amusements of the uncivilized. Reversion to archaic, "natural" ways.+ We find in savage life, almost universally unless the group has been crushed by conquest or misfortune, festivals, games, dances, and orgies, which are often celebrated with masks and dramatic action. The motives are fidelity to the traditions of ancestors, entertainment, sex excitement, war enthusiasm, and occult influence in aid of the food quest. The dramatic representation of sex attraction and of the ways of animals is often intensely graphic, and it gives great pleasure to the spectators. An occult effect, to bring about what is desired in war or the chase by enacting it in a dance or play, involves demonism, the existing form of religion. Therefore religion, dramatic dances, music, songs, emotional suggestion, and sex stimulation are intertwined from low barbarism or savagery. Experience of the perils and pains of sexual excess and overpopulation force the development of folkways of restraint, which are customary and conventional regulations of primary natural impulses. At the recurring points of time at which the festivals are held there is often a reversion from the moral status created by the later mores to the ancient "natural" ways, because the later ways are a reflection on the ancestors who were "uncultivated."

Their ghosts will be displeased at the new ways and will inflict ill fortune on the group. The festival is not a time at which to emphasize the novelty, but to set it aside and revert to old ways. How far back shall the reversion go? What is "natural"? As no one ever has known from what depths of beastliness, rendered more acute by some intelligence, man came, no one has ever known what "nature" would be. Men reverted actually to some ancient custom of their ancestors beyond which they knew nothing, and which therefore to them seemed primitive and original.

The festivals were always outside of the routine of regular life. We, for a holiday frolic, relax, for ourselves and our children, the discipline of ordinary life; for instance, on the Fourth of July. In the theater we make allowances for what we would not tolerate in the street or parlor. That a thing is in jest is, and always has been, an excuse for what is a little beyond the limit otherwise observed. It was a favorite Arab jest to fasten the train of a woman's dress, while she was sitting, to the waist of it, so that when she arose her dress would be disordered.[1987] She must learn to guard herself.

+616. Chaldean and Mexican myths of reproduction dramatically represented.+ In the mythical period of Chaldea the worship of the Great Mother Ishtar (the patroness of sex attraction, but a goddess whose love was a calamity to all her husbands,[1988] perhaps a mythical representation of the perils and pains of sex) was a setting loose of sex passion from the later societal ("moral") regulations, in favor of the original passionate impulse of sex and reproduction. The festival was, therefore, a period of license. The seat of the licentious rites, and of sacral prostitution, was Uruk, the city of the dead (i.e. of ancestors), where men liked to be buried (in order to join their ancestors).[1989] The Tammuz (Adonis) worship was connected with the worship of Ishtar, the relation between the god and the goddess being different in different myths. The Tammuz worship was a dramatic enactment of the death and resurrection of the god (connected with the decay and renewal of the world of vegetation), with corresponding lamentations and rejoicings of the worshipers.[1990] In Mexico we find a parallel pantomime of the nature process at a religious harvest festival, the pantomime being used for occult magic, in order to get good crops in the next season. Obscene figures and rites were used.

There is a maize goddess who is the "Mother of the Gods." The union of the sun god with the earth gives fertility, so that the food supply is at stake in these rites and notions.[1991] This most absorbing interest of mankind drove men's minds along the same lines of world philosophy.