To record the number of these monastic houses which were erected in the seventh and eighth centuries would require much s.p.a.ce; and as our chief concern is with the vestiges that remain in our English villages, and as most of these Saxon monasteries were plundered and destroyed by the Danes, or rebuilt on a grander scale by the Normans, we will not now enumerate them.

After the country had been evangelised by the itinerant monks and preachers, the next process was to establish a church in every village, and to provide a pastor to minister therein. Archbishop Theodore encouraged the thanes to build and endow churches on their estates, and introduced to this country the parochial system, by means of which all villages could have the services of a resident pastor.

Then the thane's house was not considered complete without its chapel; and in the scattered hamlets and village communities churches arose, rudely built of wood and roofed with thatch, wherein the Saxon _ceorls_ and _cottiers_ loved to worship.

The great Churchmen of the day were not content with such humble structures. They had travelled to Rome, and seen there some of the fine buildings dedicated for divine service; so they determined to have the like in their own country. One of these n.o.ble builders was Benedict Biscop, founder of the twin monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. When he built the former, he imported foreign artists from Gaul, who constructed the monastery after the Roman style, and amongst other things introduced glazed windows, which had never been seen in England before. Nor was his new house bare and unadorned. He brought from Rome vast stores of church furniture, many books, and the "arch-chanter" John, to teach his monks the music and ritual of Rome.

Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, and first Bishop of Sherborne, was one of the foremost church-builders of the time, and the beautiful churches at Malmesbury, Sherborne, Bradford-on-Avon, Frome, and Wareham, owe their erection to his instrumentality. Wilfrid also was one of the saintly architects of the period. Here is a description of the church of St.

Andrew, at Hexham, taken from the writings of Richard, prior of the monastery there:--

"The foundations of this church St. Wilfrid laid deep in the earth for the crypts and oratories, and the pa.s.sages leading to them, which were then with great exactness contrived and built under ground. The walls, which were of great length, and raised to an immense height, and divided into three several stones or tiers, he supported by square and other kinds of well-polished columns. Also, the walls, the capitals of the columns which supported them, and the arch of the sanctuary, he decorated with historical representations, imagery, and various figures of relief, carved in stone, and painted with a most agreeable variety of colour. The body of the church he compa.s.sed about with pentices and porticoes, which, both above and below, he divided with great and inexpressible art, by part.i.tion walls and winding stairs. Within the staircases, and above them, he caused flights of steps and galleries of stone, and several pa.s.sages leading from them both ascending and descending, to be so artfully disposed, that mult.i.tudes of people might be there, and go quite round the church, without being seen by anyone below in the nave. Moreover in the several divisions of the porticoes or aisles, he erected many most beautiful and private oratories of exquisite workmanship; and in them he caused to be placed altars in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Michael, St. John the Baptist, and the holy Apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins, with all decent and proper furniture to each of them, some of which, remaining at this day, appear like so many turrets and fortified places."

[Ill.u.s.tration: CONSECRATION OF A SAXON CHURCH]

The Danish wars had a disastrous effect on such n.o.ble structures raised by these monastic architects, as well as on many a rustic village church, which fell a prey to the ruthless invading bands of pagan warriors. But frequently, as we study the history written in the stonework of our churches, we find amid the ma.s.sive Norman walls traces of the work of Saxon builders, an arch here, a column there, which link our own times with the distant past when England was divided into eight kingdoms, or when Danegeld was levied to buy off the marauding strangers.

Roman buildings served as a model for our Saxon architects, and Roman bricks were much used by them. Brixworth Church is perhaps the finest specimen of our early Saxon churches. It has semicircular arches, made of Roman bricks, springing from square ma.s.sive piers with single abaci.

[Ill.u.s.tration: TOWER OF BARNACK CHURCH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE]

We will try to point out the distinguishing features of Saxon work, in order that you may be able to detect the evidence of its existence in your own village and neighbourhood. The walls are chiefly formed of rubble or rag stone, having "long and short work," _i.e._ long block of cut stone laid alternately horizontally and vertically, at the corners of the building and in the jambs of the doors. Often narrow ribs of masonry run vertically up the walls, and a string-course runs horizontally. The churches of Barnack and Wittering in Northamptonshire, St. Michael's, Oxford, and the towers of Earl's Barton are good examples of this.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DOORWAY, EARL'S BARTON CHURCH]

Saxon doorways have semicircular arches, and sometimes the head is shaped in the form of a triangle. The jambs are square-edged, the stone of the arch is plain, and a hood or arch of ribwork projecting from the surface of the wall surrounds the doorway. Belfry windows have two semicircular-headed lights divided by a _bal.u.s.ter_ shaft, _i.e._ a column resembling a turned-wood pillar. This feature is quite peculiar to Saxon architecture.

Anglo-Saxon single-light windows have two splays, increasing in width from the centre of the wall in which the window is placed. Norman windows have only one splay on the internal side of the building. Saxon arches separating the nave from the aisles and chancel are plain. There is no sub-arch as in Norman buildings. They are often very small, sometimes only five or six feet wide, and stand on square piers.

[Ill.u.s.tration: TOWER WINDOW, MONKWEARMOUTH CHURCH Built by Benedict Biscop, _circa_ A.D. 674]

Some Saxon churches have crypts, but few of them remain. The crypt made by St. Wilfrid at Hexham, mentioned above, still exists, and also one at Ripon Cathedral, in which there is a small window called "Wilfrid's needle." There is a legend about this which states that if a maid goes through the "needle," she will be married within the year. Repton Church has a very perfect specimen of Saxon crypt.

The ground plan of Saxon churches differed. Many were cruciform, and consisted of nave, transepts, and chancel. The east wall of the chancel was often semicircular or polygonal, sometimes rectangular. The church of St. Lawrence, at Bradford-on-Avon, mentioned by William of Malmesbury, is a fine specimen of a Saxon church, and also the little church at Es...o...b.., Durham, and that of Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, recently rescued from being used as a farmstead.

After the close of the thousandth year after the birth of Christ a new impulse was given to church-building. People imagined that with that year the millennium would arrive and the Second Advent take place. It would be vain to build beautiful churches, if they were so soon to perish in the general destruction of the world, as vain as to heap up treasure by means of trade. Hence people's minds were unsettled, and the churches left in ruins. But when the millenary had safely pa.s.sed away, they began to restore the fallen shrines, and build new churches, and the late Saxon or early Norman style came into vogue. Canute was a great church-builder, and Edward the Confessor rebuilt Westminster Abbey after the new fashion. Then came William the Conqueror with his Norman builders, and soon nearly every village had its church, which was constructed, according to William of Malmesbury, _novo aedificandi genere_.

We will now notice the characteristics of early Norman work, traces of which you may be able to recognise in your own church. The doorways are very remarkable, profusely adorned with richly carved ornamental mouldings and sculpture. The archways are round, and are composed of a succession of receding arches, all elaborately carved. The doorway of Malmesbury Church has eight arches, recessed one within the other. These arches are supported by one or more shafts, which are sometimes carved.

Above the door and below the arch is the tympanum, covered with sculpture, representing scriptural subjects, such as the figure of the Saviour in allusion to His saying, "I am the door," or the _Agnus Dei_, or Adam and Eve, or such legendary or symbolical subjects as St. George and the Dragon, or the Tree of Life.

[Ill.u.s.tration: SCULPTURED HEAD OF DOORWAY, FORDINGTON CHURCH, DORSETSHIRE]

Porches are not very common in early Norman structures, but several still exist, notably at Malmesbury, Balderton, and Brixworth. The windows are usually small and narrow, the jambs being splayed only on the inside of the church. Three such windows placed together usually give light over the altar. The walls of Norman buildings are thick and ma.s.sive, and are often faced with cut stone. String-courses or mouldings projecting from the walls, run horizontally along them, and are often adorned with the zigzag or other Norman patterns of ornament. The tower often stands between the nave and the chancel, and is usually low and ma.s.sive. In the eastern counties are found many round towers made of flint masonry. Flat b.u.t.tresses are a sure sign of Norman work, as they were not used in any of the subsequent styles of architecture.

[Ill.u.s.tration: NORMAN CAPITALS (1) Crypt, Worcester Cathedral (2) Winchester Cathedral]

The arches of the Norman builders are easily recognised. The piers in country churches are nearly always cylindrical; but there are several examples of ma.s.sive square or octagonal piers, and also a number of round columns attached, so as to form one pier. The _cushion_ capital is the most common form used in the Norman style. It is easily recognisable, but difficult to be described; and perhaps the accompanying sketch will enable the reader to discover a cushion capital when he sees it. The early Norman builders loved to bestow much labour on their capitals; and while preserving the usual cushion form, enriched them with much elaboration. The _scallop_ frequently occurs, and also the _volute_, which was copied from the work of Roman builders, who themselves imitated the Greek sculptures. Sometimes the capitals are elaborately carved with figures of men, or animals, or foliage.

[Ill.u.s.tration: NORMAN ORNAMENTAL MOULDINGS.

(1) Indented. Stoneleigh, Warwickshire (2) Zig-zag. Iffley, Oxfordshire (3) Alternate Billet. Stoneleigh, Warwickshire (4) Double Cone. Stoneleigh, Warwickshire (5) Pellet. Stoneleigh, Warwickshire (6) Lozenge. Essendine, Rutland (7) Cable. Fritwell, Oxfordshire (8) Star. Stringham, Norfolk (9) Medallion. Iffley, Oxfordshire (10) Beak-Head. Steetley, Derbyshire (11) Nail-Head. St. Ethelred's, Norwich (12) Embattled. Lincoln Cathedral]

Norman arches resemble the doorways in having sub-arches recessed within an outer arch, the intrados often being decorated with mouldings such as the zigzag or the lozenge. The chancel arch is usually very elaborately ornamented with various mouldings, which are very numerous and peculiar.

Those ill.u.s.trated on the previous page are the most common.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CROYLAND ABBEY CHURCH, LINCOLNSHIRE]

The Normans were also much skilled in vaulting with stone, as the crypts in our churches testify. Over the vaulted roof of the aisles was the _triforium_, a kind of gallery between this roof and the external roof of the church. Very few of the wooden roofs of Norman churches remain.

The fonts are large, square or cylindrical in shape, and are decorated with mouldings or sculpture, often very elaborate but rudely executed.

At Winchester Cathedral the font is carved with a representation of the baptism of King Cynigils at Dorchester. Other favourite subjects were the creation of man, the formation of Eve, the expulsion from Paradise, Christ upon the cross, the Four Evangelists, the baptism of our Lord, and legendary or symbolical representations.

[Ill.u.s.tration: SEMI-NORMAN ARCH, CHURCH OF ST. CROSS]

This style of architecture prevailed until about the middle of the twelfth century, when the _Transition Norman_ became in vogue. It is characterised by the introduction of the pointed arch. Many conjectures as regards its origin have been made. Some suppose that the idea of making the arch pointed was suggested by the intersection of semicircular arches in ornamental arcades. Others say that the Crusaders introduced it on their return from the East, or that it was suggested by the Norman vaulting, or from the form of the _vesica piscis_, the most ancient of Christian symbols. The Cistercian monks were the first to introduce it to this country, and the Cistercian abbeys of Fountains, Kirkstall, Furness, and Tintern are n.o.ble specimens of Transition Norman work. Religious zeal and enthusiasm are often reflected in the improved condition of our churches, and the grand buildings of this period are outward and visible signs of a great religious revival. Semicircular arches, however, continued to be used for windows and for the triforium; the capitals of the piers were decorated with foliage somewhat similar to that used in a subsequent period.

[Ill.u.s.tration: EARLY ENGLISH PIERS AND CAPITALS (1) Salisbury Cathedral (2) Lincoln Cathedral]

Then arose the Early English style of architecture which flourished from about the year 1175 to 1275, and is characterised by a gradual abandonment of the heavy and ma.s.sive features of the Norman style, and the adoption of lighter and more elegant forms of construction and decoration. Salisbury Cathedral, erected 1220-1260 A.D., is the most perfect example of this period. The arches are pointed, and the piers supporting them are often composed of an insulated cylindrical column surrounded by slender detached shafts, all uniting together under one capital, and divided into parts by horizontal bands. In small churches plain octagonal or circular piers are frequently used, as in the succeeding style, from which they can only be distinguished by the mouldings. Mouldings are often the surest guides in helping us to ascertain the date of a building. We have already studied the Norman mouldings. In this style they are composed of bold rounds and deep hollows, usually plain, or ornamented with the dog-tooth.

[Ill.u.s.tration: TOOTH OR DOG-TOOTH ORNAMENT]

The lancet window is now introduced, at first of only one light, very narrow and long, and differing from the Norman window in having a pointed arch. At the east end of the chancel there are often three lancet windows, the centre one higher than the rest, with one dripstone over them. The first idea of window-tracery was the introduction of a plain lozenge-shaped opening over a double lancet window, the whole being covered by a single dripstone. From this simple arrangement it was not difficult to develop the beautiful bar-tracery which came into vogue in the subsequent period of English architecture. The capitals of the Early English style are bell-shaped, at first quite plain, but subsequently these are often covered with beautifully sculptured foliage of a very graceful character. Circular windows at this period came into vogue in the gables of churches. They were either plain or quatre-foiled. Norman towers were sometimes capped with spires in the thirteenth century. The walls are not so thick or ma.s.sive as in the Norman period, and the b.u.t.tresses are stouter and more numerous, and project further from the wall. Flying b.u.t.tresses were also introduced at this period. We can generally distinguish Early English work from that of the Norman style by its lightness and elegance, as compared with the roughness and ma.s.siveness of the latter; and its plainness and simplicity sufficiently distinguish it from that of the Decorated period.

[Ill.u.s.tration: BROWNSOVER CHAPEL, WARWICKSHIRE]

The Decorated style (1275-1375) which prevailed during the reigns of the three Edwards was ushered in by a period of Transition, during which there was gradually developed the most perfect style which English architectural skill has ever attained. In the thirteenth century our builders were striving to attain the highest forms of graceful design and artistic workmanship. In the fourteenth their work reached perfection, while in the fifteenth there was a marked decline in their art, which in spite of its elaborate details lacked the beauty of the Decorated style.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MOULDINGS, TEWKESBURY ABBEY]

[Ill.u.s.tration: OGEE ARCH]

The arches of this period are usually wider, and are distinguished from those of the Early English by the character of the mouldings. The ball-flower, consisting of a ball inclosed by three or four leaves, somewhat resembling a rosebud, is the favourite ornament, and a four-leaved flower is often used. Roll mouldings, quarter, half, or three-quarters round, frequently occur, and produce a very pleasing effect. The form of the arch is in many instances changed, and the graceful _ogee_ arch is introduced. The piers are round or octagonal in village churches, and in large churches are formed by a cl.u.s.ter of cylindrical shafts, not detached as in the preceding period, but closely united. The capitals are bell-shaped, and in large churches richly sculptured. Few of the wooden roofs remain, as they have been superseded in later times; but the marks of the old roofs may often be seen on the eastern wall of the tower. The windows are larger than those of the earlier style, and are filled with geometrical and flowing tracery of great variety and beauty. Small windows have heads shaped in the ogee or trefoil forms. Square-headed windows are not uncommon, especially in the clerestory, and in monastic churches circular windows are frequently met with. It is characteristic of this style that the carving is not so deep as in the previous work. We find groups of shallow mouldings separated by one cut deeper than the others.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CAPITALS (1) Hanwell (2) Chacombe Church]

[Ill.u.s.tration: DECORATED WINDOWS (1) Merton College Chapel (2) Sandiacre, Derbyshire]

[Ill.u.s.tration: MOULDINGS (1) Elton, Huntingdonshire (2) Austrey, Warwickshire]

At length the glories of the Decorated period pa.s.s away and are merged and lost in the _Perpendicular_ which held sway from 1375 to 1540. The work is now more elaborate and richer, but lacks the majestic beauty of the Decorated style. It is easy to distinguish Perpendicular windows.

They are larger than any which we have seen before; the mullions are carried straight up through the head of the window; smaller mullions spring from the heads of the princ.i.p.al lights, and thus the windows are broken up into panel-like compartments, very different from the beautiful curves of the Decorated style. Simple pointed arches are still in use, but gradually they become flattened; and the arch, commonly known as the Tudor arch, is a peculiar feature of this style. In village churches the mouldings of the arch are often continued down the piers without any capital or shaft.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MERTON COLLEGE CHAPEL, OXFORD]

Piers are commonly formed from a square or parallelogram with the angles fluted, having on the flat face of each side a semicyclindrical shaft.

The base mouldings are polygonal. The most common doorway is the Tudor arch having a square head over it. The doors are often richly ornamented. There are a large number of square-headed windows, and so proud were these builders of their new style of window that they frequently inserted Perpendicular windows in walls of a much earlier date. Hence it is not always safe to determine the age of a church by an examination of the windows alone. Panel-work tracery on the upper part of the interior walls is a distinctive feature of this style.

[Ill.u.s.tration: VESTRY DOOR, ADDERBURY CHURCH, OXON]

[Ill.u.s.tration: ST. ERASMUS' CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY]