_Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_ and _two_, &c.

_Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae, twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_ is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_.

_The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth, sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_, or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_.

Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, a.s.sociations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of a.s.sociation actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally a.s.sociated; and thus they undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things themselves change; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circ.u.mstances. Among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been a.s.sociated.

Two or three instances will ill.u.s.trate the truth of these remarks.

In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal?

Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_ once had none of the odium which is now a.s.sociated with the term; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a va.s.sal or tenant, "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive 700 out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How are adnouns divided?--What const.i.tutes the true character of an adjective?--What are the signification and denotement of the terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_ signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.--How was numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty, score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of a.s.sociation?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_ and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_ deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest, rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c.

Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his chiefest desire.

He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night.

The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme dignity," and, "his chief desire."

We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another, because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder, gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my a.s.sistance. Correct them _four_ times over.

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truer friendship.

LECTURE V.

OF PARTICIPLES.

A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective.

Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and the compound.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling, being_: "I am _writing_ a letter."

The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished.

When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_."

The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the letter, he mailed it."

The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech, because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.

By many writers, the participle is cla.s.sed with the verb, and treated as a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to ent.i.tle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb.

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_ in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles _crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they _describe_ the several nouns a.s.sociated with them, like describing adjectives; and that, in this respect, they partic.i.p.ate the properties of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles.

Perhaps I can ill.u.s.trate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated _participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_ stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar.

Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_, describe or define the nouns with which they are a.s.sociated. And where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is _running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects, as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding ill.u.s.tration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other.

_Participles. Participial adjectives_.

See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun.

See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon.

The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind.

The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell.

The vessel _anch.o.r.ed_ in the The _anch.o.r.ed_ vessel spreads bay, lost her mast. her sail.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_; as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in _ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you pa.r.s.e a word ending in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word _interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as _un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle: but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb.

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_, and so on.

You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed with me.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE.

"I saw a vessel _sailing"_

_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, according to

RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or p.r.o.noun denoting the subject or actor_.

"Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."

_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the noun "billow," agreeably to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood_.

You will please to pa.r.s.e these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE.

Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a noun or p.r.o.noun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement; but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing; or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle _sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse,"

the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and it is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived_.

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and pa.r.s.e the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in a.n.a.lyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot pa.r.s.e correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_ more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.