1. Dialogues in the English and Malaiane Languages: or, Certaine Common Formes of Speech, first written in Latin, Malaian, and Madasgascar tongues, by the diligence and painfull endeuour of Master Gotardus Arthusius, a Dantisker, and now faithfully translated into the English tongue by Augustine Spalding Merchant, for their sakes, who happily shall hereafter undertake a voyage to the East-Indies. At London, Imprinted by Felix Kyngston for William Welby, and are to bee sold at his shop in Pauls Church-yard, at the signe of the Swan, 1614.

2. Reynolds and Wilson (1968: 120).

3. Febvre and Martin (1976: 248-9).

4. ibid.: 289-95.

5. Anderson (1991: 39-41).

10 Usurpers of Greatness: Spanish in the New World

1. Herodotus, iv.106; Strabo, iv.5.4.

2. 'E certifico a vuestra alteza que yo conte desde una mezquita cuatrocientos treinta y tantas tones en la dicha ciudad, y todas son de mezquitas.' Cortes, Cartas de Relacion de la Conquista de Mexico, Carta Segunda (1982, Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 7th edn, p. 50).

3. Joseph de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies, i, p. 160 (quoted in Crosby 1972: 38).

4. '...parecio al Almirante que debia llevar a Castilla ... algunos indios paraque aprendiesen la lengua de Castilla y saber dellos los secretos de la tierra, y para instruillos en las cosas de la fe ...' De las Casas (1957 [c.1530], i.46: 163). De las Casas, describing the events fifty years later, found this act unpardonable, since it amounted to kidnapping.

5. e.g. in Rosenblat (1964: 192-3).

6. Inca Garcilaso, according to Gomez (1995: 82).

7. Inca Garcilaso, according to Abbott (1996: 685).

8. Instruccion Real, 20 and 29 March 1503, to Nicolas Ovando, in Colleccion de doc.u.mentos ineditos del Archivo de Indias, x.x.xi, pp. 163-4.

9. This is described in, for example, Alvar (2000).

10. There is a list of noted mestizo generals and writers, especially historians, in Rosenblat (1964: 211).

11. Father Blas Valera's words, quoted by Inca Garcilaso, Commentarios Reales, part I, vii.3: '... La cual opinion ninguno que la oye deja de entender que nacio antes de flaqueza de animo que torpeza de entendimiento.'

12. By Abbott (1996: 91).

13. Father Blas Valera's words, quoted by Inca Garcilaso, Commentarios Reales, part I, vii.3: '... porque la semejanza y conformidad de las palabras casi siempre suelen reconciliar y traer a verdadera union y amistad a los hombres.'

14. Ricard (1933 [1966]: 23) says that in Mexico in 1559 there were 380 Franciscans, 210 Dominicans and 212 Augustinians. They were thinly spread: the average convent had five religious staff. Rosenblat (1964: 210) gives the then population of Mexico as 4.5 million, with the number of Spanish vecinos (heads of households) as 6,464.

15. La Paz (Bolivia) followed in 1610, Guatemala in 1660. Other major capitals in the Americas did not, however, begin to produce printed books until the eighteenth century, e.g. Bogota in 1737, Buenos Aires in 1780 (Quilis 1992: 46-7). So for the Chibcha language, although it was officially const.i.tuted as the lengua general in New Granada, the first extant grammar had to be printed in Madrid in 1619. This was a serious problem for such technical publications in foreign languages, because the author, an ocean away from the printing house, would be unable to correct errors in the proofs, and the learners of course might well be misled by them.

16. Vinaza (1892). These could be compared with the Summer Inst.i.tute for Linguistics' estimate of the number of distinct languages in the Americas: 888, with 408 of them in South America (Harmon 1995: 26-7).

17. Rosenblat (1964: 191).

18. Sherzer (1993: 251).

19. Lara (1989: 99).

20. Lara (1971: 14) mentions a ma.n.u.script codex by Pedro Aparicio of 1540 (Arte, vocabulario, sermones etc...en quichua), and notes that in the Relacion del consilio Limense, published in 1551, the language is referred to as Quichua o general del Peru.

21. Cerron-Palomino (1987: 35). He finds support for this in the words of the chroniclers Pedro Cieza de Leon (El senorio de los Incas, 1550), xxiv.119, and Bernabe Cobo (Historia del Nuevo Mundo, 1653), xiv. 1.235.

22. In this account, I follow Hardman (1985), an author whose lifetime of experience in the area makes her a better guide than most to this murky and complex area of pre-Hispanic history. It is rea.s.suring that Cerron-Palomino also comes down (1987: 348) in favour of a coastal origin for Que-chua. Their major inspiration is Alfredo Torero (e.g. 1974).

23. Father Blas Valera's words, quoted by Inca Garcilaso, Commentarios Reales, part I, vii.3.

24. ibid., part I, vii.2.

25. Triana y Antorveza (1987: 157).

26. Cieza de Leon, p. 296, cited in Triana y Antorveza (1987: 157).

27. From Cadogan (1959), quoted in Vanaya (1986:42).

28. From G.o.doy (1982), quoted in Vanaya (1986:51).

29. Vanaya (1986: 6-7).

30. Arte y Grammatica muy copiosa de la lengua Aymara, Father Ludovico Bertonio, Jesuit (Rome, 1603); Gramatica de la Lengua general del Nuevo Reino, llamada Mosca, Father Fray Bernardo de Lugo, Dominican (Madrid, 1619); Arte, y Bocabulario de la lengua guarani, Father Antonio Ruiz, Jesuit (Madrid, 1640).

31. Cuevas (1914: 159).

32. Collecion Munoz, vol. 86, fol. 54v.: 'Somos muy pocos para ensenar la lengua de Castilla a indios. Ellos no quieren hablalla. Mejor seria hacer general la mexicana, que es harto general y le tienen aficion, y en ella hay escrito doctrina y sermones y arte y vocabulario.'

33. Father Blas Valera's words, quoted by Inca Garcilaso, Commentarios Reales, part I, vii.3: 'Si los espanoles que son de ingenio muy agudo y muy sabios en ciencias, no pueden como ellos dicen, aprender la lengua general del Cuzco, como se podra hacer, que los indios no cultivados ni ensenados en letras aprendan la lengua castellana?'

34. Quilis (1992: 64); Rosenblat (1964: 194).

35. Rosenblat (1964: 193-5); Quilis (1992: 55).

36. Carlos V, Real Cedula of Valladolid, to the viceroy of New Spain, 7 June 1550, copied with some variants to all the Dominican, Augustinian and Franciscan provincials of Mexico, and to the viceroy of Peru and the Audiencia of Lima (Rosenblat 1964: 206).

37. Quoted in Triana y Antorveza (1987: 300). 'This Kingdom', the New Kingdom of Granada, was supposed have Chibcha as its lengua general, but evidently the archbishop found it inadequate for his mission. Probably it was never used beyond the original area of Chibcha dominance, a rather small part of the whole.

38. Figures derived from Rosenblat (1964: 210-12). In 1810, according to him, mestizos would have made up 27 per cent of the Mexican population.

39. Rosenblat (1964) quotes a letter on these lines from Domingo de Almeida, writing in the name of the bishopric of Charcas (in Peru). It explicitly did not ask for priests to stop learning the natives' languages.

40. Arthur J. O. Anderson, Psalmodia Christiana (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1993), p. 33.

41. Motolinia (1990 [1541]: i.15).

42. Leon-Portilla (1992: 301).

43. Trans. Frances Karttunen and Gilka Wara Cespedes, Tlalocan, vol. ix (1982), pp. 119-27.

44. Father Francisco Mercier y Guzman, Sermon for Friday of Lent, July 1765. Quoted in Albo and Layme (1992: 40-1).

45. Dietrich (1995: 289); Tovar (1964: 249). Tovar offers a different etymology for the money word, as cua repoti, 'piece of dross'.

46. 'Una muy buena cosa acontecio a un clerigo recien venido de Castilla, que no podia creer que los indios sabian la doctrina cristiana, ni Pater Noster, ni Credo bien dicho; y como otros espanoles le dijesen que si, el todavia incredulo; y a esta sazon habian salido dos estudiantes del colegio, y el clerigo pensando que eran de los otros indios, pregunto a uno si sabia el Pater Noster y dijo que si, e hizosele decir, y despues hizole decir el Credo, y dijole bien; y el clerigo acusole una palabra que el indio bien decia, y como el indio se afirmase en que decia bien, y el clerigo que no, tuvo el estudiante necesidad de probar como decia bien, y preguntole hablando en latin: Reverende Pater, cujus casus est? Entonces como el clerigo no supiera gramatica, quedo confuso y atajado' (Motolinia 1990 [1541]: iii.12.389).

47. Lastra and Horcasitas (1983:267); Quilis (1992:44).

48. Cerron-Palomino (1987: 343-4).

49. ibid.: 346, 67-75.

50. 'Los ministros eclesiasticos que no procuran adelantar y extender el idioma castellano y cuidar que los indios sepan leer y escriber en el, dejandolos cerrados en su nativo idioma, son en mi concepto, enemigos declarados del bien de los naturales, de su policia y racionalidad...' Cartas pastorales y edictos, Mexico, 1770, p. 47.

51. Rosenblat (1964: 210).

52. Lorenzana, Cartas pastorales y edictos, Mexico, 1770, quoted in Triana y Antorveza (1987: 504).

53. Deputy Mateos in 1910, quoted in King (1994: 58).

54. Jose Maria Morelos, Sentiments of the Nation, quoted in English translation in King (1994: 57).

55. King (1994: 59).

56. Rosenblat (1964: 212).

57. Grimes (2000: 100).

58. Rosenblat (1964: 214).

59. Rubin (1985: 111-12).

60. Grimes (1996: 115).

61. Quilis (1992: 46).

62. ibid.: 79-80.

63. ibid.: 82.

11 In the Train of Empire: Europe's Languages Abroad

1. Oliveira Marques (1972: 343).

2. Anquetil du Perron (first translator of the Iranian Zend Avesta), in Recherches historiques et geographiques sur l'Inde, vol. ii, pp. xii-xiii, quoted in Lopes (1936: 60).

3. Santarem (1958 [1841]), and Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. Wyndham, Thomas (compact edn, p. 2343).

4. Samuel Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes, ii, p. 345 (Glasgow 1905 [1625]), quoted in Lopes (1936: 32).

5. Mandelslo, Voyages celebres et remarquables faits de Perse aux Indes Orientales, p. 33 (Amsterdam, 1727), quoted in Lopes (1936: 38).

6. Peregrinacao, xci (Lisbon, 1614), quoted in Tarracha Ferreira (1992:432-3).

7. This is from the Charter of the VOC (the Dutch United East India Company) of 1698, quoted by Revd Frank Penny, The Church in Madras, vol. i, pp. 190-2 (London, 1904), and thence by Lopes (1936:47).

8. Jean Brun, La veritable Religion des Hollandais (Amsterdam, 1675), p. 267, quoted in Lopes (1936: 48).

9. Francois Valentijn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien (Amsterdam, 1724-6), quoted in Lopes (1936: 48).

10. Vasquez Cuesta and Mendes da Luz (1971: 151).

11. Grimes (2000).

12. Barraclough (1978: 166).

13. Father Antonio Vieira, Sermon of the Holy Spirit (Oporto, 1683), quoted in Tarracha Ferreira (1992: 480-4).

14. Fernao Cardim, Tratados da terra e gente do Brasil, p. 121, quoted in Johnson and Nizza da Silva (1992: 481). Sao Vicente is on the southern coast of Brazil, near Sao Paulo.

15. Grimes (2000). The estimate for current speakers of Tupinamba (now known as Nhengatu), the old lingua geral, is just five thousand.

16. Israel (1995: 321).

17. Nauwkeurige beschryving van de Guinese Goud-, Tand- en Slave-Kust (Amsterdam, 1704), quoted in Boxer (1969: 106).

18. Grimes (2000).

19. Israel (1995: 941).

20. Francois Valentijn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien, iii, 1, pp. 35-44 (Amsterdam, 1724-6), quoted in Hoffman (1979: 66).

21. Hoffman (1979: 66-8).

22. ibid.: 70.