6. Lancel (1997: 437).

7. Such colonies included Seleuceia on the Tigris, Seleuceia on the Eulaeus-none other than Susa, formerly the Elamite and Persian capital-and modern Ai Khanum in the Bactrian far east, i.e. modern Afghanistan (Wiesehofer 2001: 111-12).

8. Pritchard (1969: 56): Inanna's Descent to the Nether World (trans. S. N. Kramer).

9. Tsereteli (1959 [1912]).

10. Expounded in Schmandt-Besserat (1997).

11. Hallo (1974: 185-6); the Hymn to Inanna is translated in Pritchard (1969: 579-82).

12. Pritchard (1969: 496): Love Song to a King (trans. S. N. Kramer), slightly adapted.

13. Pritchard (1969: 652): Ua-aua, a Sumerian lullaby (trans. S. N. Kramer), slightly adapted; .14. Thomsen (1984: 293-4), quoting from Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 107(4), pp. 1-12; (trans. S. N. Kramer), slightly adapted.15. Pritchard (1969: 651): The Curse of Agade, vv. 279-81 (trans S. N. Kramer); .16. McAlpin (1981:60).17. Malbran-Labat (1996: 56).18. Wiesehofer (2001: 10).19. Diakonoff (1985:24).20. Hallo (1974: 184).21. Kramer (1979: 39).22. This is the a.n.a.lysis of Malbran-Labat (1996).23. Roux (1992: 276).24. Sawyer (1999: 14).25. Oded (1979); Oded, quoted in Garelli (1982: 438); and Roux (1992: 308).26. Pritchard (1969: 284): from a display inscription in Sargon II's show capital of Khorsabad (Dur Sharrukin).27. Tadmor (1982: 451).28. Parpola (1999) claims it was quite deliberate: 'The Aramaization of a.s.syria was a calculated policy aimed at creating national unity and ident.i.ty of a kind that could never have been achieved, had the Empire remained a loose conglomeration of a plethora of different nations and languages.'29. Garelli (1982:442).30. Kaufman (1997: 114-15).31. Dietrich (1967: 87-90).32. ibid.: 90, citing Dietrich (1979: item 10).33. Kaufman (1974: 165-70). And Parpola (1999) notes a slip of the stylus in Ashurbanipal's library copy of Gilgamesh (mid-seventh century), which could only have been made by an Aramaic speaker: the glyph for 'lord' (mara in Aramaic) in place of that for 'son' (mara in Akkadian).34. Pritchard (1969: 317): Historical doc.u.ments, 5. Antiochus Soter (trans. F. H. Weissbach).35. ibid.: 136: Poems about Baal and Anath, f.C (trans. H. L. Ginsberg).36. Genesis xxvii.28 and 39. See also Gordon (1971: 122).37. Ezekiel xxvii.3-11, 25-6, 32.38. Lancel (1997: 357); Cribb et al. (1999: 225, 227).39. Augustine, Letters, xvii.2 (Letter to Maximus Madaurus).40. Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xviii.22.41. Hanno, Periplus (Codex Palatinus Graecus 398, fols 55r-56r).42. Augustine, Sermones, clxvii.4.43. Plautus, Poenulus, 930-1028.44. ibid., 1002-12: the translations of the Punic follow Sznycer (1967: 141-3).45. Livy, xxviii.46.16.46. Kaufman (1997: 115).47. Greenfield (1985: 708); Polotsky (1971).48. Thucydides, iv.50.49. Daniel i.4.50. Lemaire and Lozachmeur (1996: pa.s.sim).51. Greenfield (1985: 701, n. 2).52. Pritchard (1969: 428): The Words of Ahiqar (trans. H. L. Ginsberg).53. ibid.: 491: Letters of the Jews in Elephantine (trans. H. L. Ginsberg).54. Schlumberger et al. (1958).55. Henning(1949).56. There is one curse-tablet of the fourth century BC, recently discovered at the Macedonian capital, Pella, which suggests that it was a variant Greek dialect, of the north-western type (Voutyras 1994).57. Brock (1989: 19).58. Saeki (1937).59. Their paradoxical use of English to protect the use of German is described in Johnson-Weiner (1999).60. Described from a Welsh learner's viewpoint by Pam Petro (Petro 1997: 259-319).61. Hadith of disputed authenticity. Al-Tabrizi (1985: 6006).62. Attempted in Miquel (1968) and Planhol (1968).63. Qur'an, xcvi.1-2. Tantalisingly, the last word here is also often translated as 'blood clot'. The semantic root of 'alaqin seems to be the idea of clinging.64. Braudel (1993: 72), quoting the Arab historian Baladhori.65. Lewis (1995: 184-6).66. Frye (1993:99).67. ibid.: 123.68. ibid.: 169.69. ibid.: 113.70. ibid.: 169.71. Guichard (2000: 143), quoting Jean-Pierre Molenat.72. Corriente (1992:34).73. Haddadou (1993: 87).74. Ibn Khaldun, quoted in Ellingham et al. (2001: 552); this thirteenth-century author also wrote a history of the Berbers.75. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimat, quoted in Armstrong (2000: 90).76. Shaw (1976: 5).77. Schoff (1912).78. Hourani (1995: 92-7).79. Dalby (1998: 591-5).80. Clauson (2002: 50, 183).81. 'Abd al-Ghani (1929).82. Mango (1999: 496).83. Khaulavi (1979, vol. ii: 37).84. Braudel (1993:45).85. ibid.: 112.86. ibid.: 41-2.4 Triumphs of Fertility: Egyptian and Chinese 1. trans. Lichtheim (1973: 52).2. trans. Soothill (1910: 73-4).3. Pritchard (1969: 415).4. Erman (1894: 544).5. ibid.: 106.6. ibid.: 244.7. Noted by Loprieno (1995: 71).8. Moran (1992: xx-xxi).9. Bacchylides (1961: 14-16), frag. 20B; also Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1361.10. Greenfield (1985: 701, n. 2).11. See Loprieno (1995).12. Johnson (1999: 177); Dodson (2001: 90, 92).13. According to the Cairene Arab Maqrizi (1365-1442), reported in Lipinski (1997: 29).14. By the Translators' Bureau in late imperial times: Ramsey (1987: 32).