During this brief final visit to the French capital, Mrs. Fry entered on her sixty-third year, aged and infirm in body, but still animated by the master pa.s.sion of serving the sad and sorrowful. Her brother, Joseph John Gurney, together with his wife, were with her in Paris, but they pursued their journey into Switzerland, while she returned home in June, feeling that life's shadows were lengthening apace, and that not much time remained to her in which to complete her work. The impressions she had made on the society of the gay city had been altogether good. Like the people who stared at the pilgrims pa.s.sing through Vanity Fair, the Parisians wondered, and understood for the first time that here was a lady who did indeed pa.s.s through things temporal, "with eyes fixed on things eternal"; and whose supreme delight lay, not in ball-rooms, race-courses, or courts, but in finding out suffering humanity and striving to alleviate its woes. Doubtless many of the gay Parisians shrugged their shoulders and smiled good-humoredly at the "illusion,"

"notion," "fanaticism," or whatever else they called it; they were simply living on too low a plane of life to understand, or to criticise Mrs. Fry. Except animated by somewhat of fellow-feeling, none can understand her career even now. It stands too far apart from, too highly lifted above, our ordinary pursuits and pleasures, to be compared with anything that less philanthropic-minded mortals may do. It called for a far larger amount of self-denial than ordinary people are capable of; it demanded too much singleness of purpose and sincerity of speech. Had Mrs. Fry not come from a Quaker stock she might have conformed more to the ways and manners of fashionable society; had she possessed less of sterling piety, she might have sought to serve her fellow-creatures in more easy paths. As a reformer, she was sometimes misunderstood, abused, and spoken evil of. It was always the case and always will be, that reformers receive injustice. Only, in some cases, as in this one, time reverses the injustice, and metes out due honor. As a consequence, Elizabeth Fry's name is surrounded with an aureola of fame, and her self-abnegation affords a sublime spectacle to thoughtful minds of all creeds and cla.s.ses; for, simply doing good is seen to be the highest glory.

CHAPTER XI.

NEW THEORIES OF PRISON DISCIPLINE AND MANAGEMENT.

Mrs. Fry's opinions on prison discipline and management were necessarily much opposed to those which had obtained prior to her day. No one who has followed her career attentively, can fail to perceive that her course of prison management was based upon well arranged and carefully worked out principles. In various letters, in evidence before committees of both Houses of Parliament, and in private intercourse, Mrs. Fry made these principles and rules as fully known and as widely proclaimed as it was possible to do. But, like all reformers, she felt the need of securing a wider dissemination of them. Evidence given before committees, was, in many points, deferred to; private suggestions and recommendations were frequently adopted, but a large cla.s.s of inquirers were too far from the sphere of her influence to be moved in this way.

For the sake of these, and the general public, she deemed it wise to embody her opinions and rules in a treatise, which gives in small compa.s.s, but very clearly, the _rationale_ of her treatment of prisoners; and lays down suggestions, hints, and principles upon which others could work. Within about seventy octavo pages, she discourses practically and plainly on the formation of Ladies' Committees for visiting prisons, on the right method of proceeding in a prison after the formation of such a committee, on female officers in prisons, on separate prisons for females, on inspection and cla.s.sification, on instruction and employment, on medical attendance, diet, and clothing, and on benevolent efforts for prisoners who have served their sentences.

It is easy to recognize in these pages the Quakeress, the woman, and the Christian. She recommends to the attention of ladies, as departments for doing good, not only prisons, but lunatic asylums, hospitals and workhouses. At the same time she strongly recommends that only _orderly_ and _experienced_ visitors should endeavor to penetrate into the abodes of vice and wickedness, which the prisons of England at that day mostly were. Among other judicious counsels for the conduct of these visitors occur the following, which read as coming from her own experience. That this was the case we may feel a.s.sured; Mrs. Fry was too wise and too womanly not to warn others from the pit-falls over which she had stumbled, or to permit anyone to fall into her early mistakes:--

"Much depends on the spirit in which the worker enters upon her work. It must be the spirit not of judgment but of mercy. She must not say in her heart, 'I am holier than thou'; but must rather keep in perpetual remembrance that '_all_ have sinned,' and that, therefore, great pity is due from us even to the greatest transgressors among our fellow-creatures, and that in meekness and love we ought to labor for their restoration. The good principle in the hearts of many abandoned persons may be compared to the few remaining sparks of a nearly extinguished fire. By means of the utmost care and attention, united with the most gentle treatment, these may yet be fanned into a flame; but under the operation of a rough and violent hand they will presently disappear and be lost forever. In our conduct with these unfortunate females, kindness, gentleness, and true humility ought ever to be united with serenity and firmness. Nor will it be safe ever to descend, in our intercourse with them, to _familiarity_, for there is a dignity in the Christian character which demands, and will obtain, respect; and which is powerful in its influence even over dissolute minds.... Neither is it by any means wise to converse with them on the subject of the crimes of which they are accused or convicted, for such conversation is injurious both to the criminals themselves and to others who hear them; and, moreover, too frequently leads them to add sin to sin, by uttering the grossest falsehoods. And those who engage in the interesting task of visiting criminals must not be impatient if they find the work of reformation a very slow one.... Much disadvantage will accrue generally from endeavors on the part of visiting ladies to procure the mitigation of the sentences of criminals. Such endeavors ought never to be made except where the cases are remarkably clear, and then through the official channels. Deeply as we must deplore the baneful effects of the punishment of death, and painful as we must feel it to be that our fellow-creatures, in whose welfare we are interested, should be prematurely plunged into an awful eternity, yet, while our laws continue as they are, unless they can bring forward _decided facts_ in favor of the condemned, it is wiser for the visiting ladies to be quiet, and to submit to decrees which they cannot alter."

In reference to the choice of officers, she strongly insists that all officers--superior and inferior--shall be females. She prefers a widow for the post of matron, because of her superior knowledge of the world and of life; and never should she or her subordinates be chosen "because the situation is suited to their wants, but because they are suited to fill the situation." She holds it of the first importance that the matrons should not only be of a superior station in life, but that they should be decidedly religious. This little book was written in 1827, but from her insistence upon this as a first requisite in proper dealing with female prisoners, it appears likely that the then recent act of George IV., had not been commonly complied with. This act provides that a "matron shall be appointed in every prison in which female prisoners shall be confined, who shall reside in the prison; and it shall be the duty of the matron constantly to superintend the female prisoners."

Again, another clause of the Act says, "Females shall in all cases be attended by female officers." That these provisions had only been partially carried out, is proved by her words relative to this clause: "Since the pa.s.sing of the late Act of Parliament for the regulations of prisons, our large jails have been generally provided with a matron and female turnkeys; but it is much to be regretted that in many smaller prisons no such provisions have yet been adopted. Nor ought it to be concealed that the persons selected to fill the office of matron are, in various instances, unsuited to their posts; and in other cases are unfitted for its fulfillment, by residing out of prison."

With respect to the cla.s.sification of prisoners, Mrs. Fry recommends four cla.s.ses or divisions which should comprise the total:--1st.

Prisoners of previous good character, and guilty only of venial crimes.

This cla.s.s, she suggests, should be allowed to dress a little better and be put to lighter labors than the others. From their ranks, also, should temporary officers be selected, while small pecuniary rewards might be with propriety offered. 2d. Prisoners convicted of more serious crimes.

These should be treated with more strictness; but it should be possible for a prisoner, by constant good conduct and obedience to rules, to rise into the first cla.s.s. 3d. In this cla.s.s the privileges were to be considerably diminished, while the 4th cla.s.s consisted only of hardened offenders, guilty of serious crimes, and of those who had been frequently committed. "This cla.s.s must undergo its peculiar privations and hardships." Still, that hope may not entirely give place to despair, Mrs. Fry recommends that even these criminals should be eligible for promotion to the upper cla.s.ses upon good behavior. It will be seen that this system partook somewhat of Captain Machonochie's merit, or good-mark system, introduced by him with such remarkable success into Norfolk Island.

Among other suggestions relative to the cla.s.sification of prisoners we find one recommending the wearing of a ticket by each woman. Every ticket was to be inscribed with a number, which number should agree with the corresponding number on the cla.s.s list. Each cla.s.s list was to be kept by the matron or visitors, and was to include a register of the conduct of the prisoners. In the case of convicts on board convict-ships proceeding to the penal settlements, Mrs. Fry recommended that not only should the women wear these tickets, but that every article of clothing, every book, and every piece of bedding should be similarly numbered; even the convicts' seats at table should be distinguished by the same numbers in order to prevent disputes, and to promote order and regularity.

She considered the most thorough, vigilant, and unremitting inspection essential to a correct system of prison discipline; by this means she antic.i.p.ated that an effectual, if slow, change of habits might be produced.

With regard to the instruction of prisoners, she held decided views as to the primary importance of Scriptural knowledge. The Bible, and the Bible alone, was to be the text-book for this purpose, while nothing sectarian was to be admitted; but in their fullest sense, "the essential and saving principles of our common Christianity were to be inculcated."

She recommended reading, writing, arithmetic, and needlework, the last to carry with it a little remuneration, in order to afford the women some encouragement. While acknowledging the wisdom of the Act of Parliament which provided that prayers should be read daily in all prisons, she strongly urges visitors and chaplains to teach privately "that true religion and saving faith are in their nature practical, and that the reality of repentance can be proved only by good works and by an amendment in life and conversation."

For the employment of prisoners she recommends such occupations as patchwork, knitting stockings, making articles of plain needlework, washing, ironing, housework, cooking, spinning, and weaving. It should in all cases be _constant_, and in the worst cases, _disciplinary_ labor. She recommends, under _strict limitations_, the treadmill for hardened, refractory, and depraved women, but only for short periods.

All needleworkers especially should receive some remuneration for their work, which remuneration should be allowed to acc.u.mulate for their benefit by such time as their sentences expire, in order that when they leave prison they may possess a little money wherewith to commence the world afresh. Her words are: "The greater portion of their allotted share of earnings, however, must be reserved for them against the time of their leaving prison and returning to the world. The possession of a moderate sum of money will _then_ be found of essential importance as the means of preventing an almost irresistible temptation, the temptation of want and money, to the renewal of criminal practices. And if, in laboring for this remuneration the poor criminal has also gained possession of the _habit_ of industry, and has learned to appreciate the sweets of regular employment, it is more than probable that this temptation may never occur again."

Mrs. Fry quotes largely from the Act of Parliament, relative to the matters of diet, medical attendance, clothing, bedding, and firing. It seemed to be the fact that the provisions of this Act did not extend to prisons which were exclusively under local jurisdiction; she therefore recommends lady visitors and committees to see them enforced as much as possible. While preserving even-handed justice between criminals and the country whose laws they have outraged, by suggesting that their treatment should be sufficiently penal to be humiliating, that their hair should be cut short, and all personal ornaments forbidden, she pleads earnestly for proper bedding and firing. She says: "During inclement weather, diseases are sometimes contracted by the unfortunate inmates of our jails, which can never afterwards be removed. I believe it has sometimes happened that poor creatures committed to prison for trial, have left the place of their confinement, acquitted of crime, and yet crippled for life."

From the same volume we find that Government had then inaugurated a wiser, kinder system of dealing with the convicts destined for the colonies. By the new regulations, females were allowed to take out with them all children under the age of seven years; while a mother suckling an infant was not compelled to leave England until the child was old enough to be weaned. Again, the convicts were not to be manacled in any way during their removal from the prison to the convict-ship; "but as the rule is often infringed, it is desirable that ladies of the committee should be vigilant on the subject, and should represent all cases to the governor of the prison, and afterwards, if needful, to the visiting magistrates." Further, the Government, or the boroughs, had to provide the transports with needful clothing for the voyage; and, at the end of it, the surgeon's or matron's certificate of good behavior was sufficient to ensure employment for most of the women. Altogether it seems certain that a new era for prisoners had dawned, and new ideas prevailed in regard to them. How much Mrs. Fry's labors had contributed to this state of things will never be fully known; but her work was almost accomplished.

This little book, which is a perfect _Vade Mec.u.m_ of prison management, was written in the interest of lady visitors, and for their use. It is still interesting, as showing Mrs. Fry's own mode of procedure, and the principles upon which she acted. The few quotations given in this chapter will, however, suffice for the general reader. She concludes with a pregnant sentence: "Let our prison discipline be severe in proportion to the enormity of the crimes of those on whom it is exercised, and let its strictness be such as to deter others from a similar course of iniquity, but let us ever aim at the _diminution of crime_ through the just and happy medium of the REFORMATION OF CRIMINALS."

Not only in the published page, but in other ways--in fact in every possible way--did Mrs. Fry continue to proclaim the need of a new method of ordering criminals, and also of so treating them, that they should be fitted to return to society _improved_ and not _degraded_ by their experience of penal measures. In 1832, she was called upon to give evidence before another committee of the House of Commons, upon the best mode of enforcing "secondary punishments" so as to repress crime. On this occasion she dwelt particularly upon the points noticed in her book published five years previously, and added one or two more. For instance, while advocating complete separation at _night_, she quite as earnestly contended against what was known as the "solitary system." On this point she maintained that "solitude does not prepare women for returning to social and domestic life, or tend so much to real improvement, as carefully arranged intercourse during part of the day with one another under the closest superintendence and inspection, combined with constant occupation, and solitude at night." In her evidence there occurs the following pa.s.sage:--

Every matron should live upon the spot, and be able to inspect them closely by night and by day; and when there are sufficient female prisoners to require it, female officers should be appointed, and a male turnkey never permitted to go into the women's apartments. I am convinced when a prison is properly managed it is unnecessary, because, by firm and gentle management, the most refractory may be controlled by their own s.e.x. But here I must put in a word respecting ladies' visiting. I find a remarkable difference depending upon whether female officers are superintended by ladies or not. I can tell almost as soon as I go into the prison whether they are or not, from the general appearance both of the women and their officers. One reason is that many of the latter are not very superior women, not very high, either in principle or habits, and are liable to be contaminated; they soon get familiar with the prisoners, and cease to excite the respect due to their office; whereas, where ladies go in once, or twice, or three times a week, the effect produced is decided. Their attendance keeps the female officers in their places, makes them attend to their duty, and has a constant influence on the minds of the prisoners themselves. In short, I may say, after sixteen years' experience, that the result of ladies of principle and respectability superintending the female officers in prisons, and the prisons themselves, has far exceeded my most sanguine expectations. In no instance have I more clearly seen the beneficial effects of ladies' visiting and superintending prisoners than on board convict-ships. I have witnessed the alterations since ladies have visited them constantly in the river.

I heard formerly of the most dreadful iniquity, confusion, and frequently great distress; latterly I have seen a very wonderful improvement in their conduct. And on the voyage, I have most valuable certificates to show the difference of their condition on their arrival in the colony. I can produce, if necessary, extracts from letters. Samuel Marsden, who has been chaplain there a good many years, says it is quite a different thing: that they used to come in a most filthy, abominable state, hardly fit for anything; now they arrive in good order, in a totally different situation.

And I have heard the same thing from others. General Darling's wife, a very valuable lady, has adopted the same system there; she has visited the prison at Paramatta, and the same thing respecting the officers is felt there as it is here. On the Continent of Europe, in various parts--St. Petersburg, Geneva, Turin, Berne, Basle, and some other places--there are corresponding societies, and the result is the same in every part. In Berlin they are doing wonders--I hear a most satisfactory account; and in St. Petersburg, where, from the barbarous state of the people, it was said it could not be done, the conduct of the prisoners has been perfectly astonishing--an entire change has been produced.

On the 22d of May, 1835, Mrs. Fry was desired to attend the Select Committee of the House of Lords, appointed to inquire into the state of the several jails and houses of correction in England and Wales. She went, accompanied by three ladies, co-workers, and escorted by Sir T.

Fowell Buxton. The Duke of Richmond was chairman of the committee, which included some twelve or fifteen n.o.blemen. An eyewitness wrote afterwards respecting Mrs. Fry's behavior and manner: "Never, should I think, was the calm dignity of her character more conspicuous. Perfectly self-possessed, her speech flowed melodiously, her ideas were clearly expressed, and if another thought possessed her besides that of delivering her opinions faithfully and judiciously upon the subjects brought before her, it was that she might speak of her Lord and Master in that n.o.ble company."

The princ.i.p.al topics treated of in her evidence before this committee were connected with the general state of female prisons. Among other things, she urged the want of more instruction, but that such instruction should not be given privately and _alone_ to women; that the treadmill was an undesirable punishment for women; that matrons were required to be suitable in character, age, and capability for the post; that equality in labor and diet was needed; and she insisted on the imperative necessity of Government inspectors in both Scotch and English prisons and convict-ships. She enlarged upon these matters in the manner the subject demanded, and gave the committee the impression of being in solemn earnest. Her quiet, Christian dignity impressed all who listened to her voice, while the most respectful consideration was paid to her suggestions. In reply to a question touching the instruction of the prisoners, she says:--

I believe the effect of religious and other instruction is hardly to be calculated on; and I may further say that, notwithstanding the high estimation and reverence in which I held the Holy Scriptures, before I went to the prisons, as believing them to be written by inspiration of G.o.d, and therefore calculated to produce the greatest good, I have seen, in reading the Scripture to those women, such a power attending them, and such an effect on the minds of the most reprobate, as I could not have conceived. If anyone wants a confirmation of the truth of Christianity let him go and read the Scriptures in prison to poor sinners; you there see how the Gospel is exactly adapted to the fallen condition of man. It has strongly confirmed my faith; and I feel it to be the bounden duty of the Government and the country that these truths shall be administered in the manner most likely to conduce to the real reformation of the prisoner. You then go to the root of the matter, for though severe punishment may in a measure deter them and others from crime, it does not amend the character and change the heart; but if you have altered the principles of the individual, they are not only deterred from crime because of the fear of punishment, but they go out, and set a bright example to others.

Both the _silent_ and _solitary_ systems were condemned by her as being particularly liable to abuse. She considered the silent system cruel, and especially adapted to harden the heart of a criminal even to moral petrefaction. But the strongest protest was made against _solitary_ confinement. Upon every available opportunity she spoke against it to those who were in power. Unless the offense was of a very aggravated nature, she doubted the right of any man to place a fellow-creature in such misery. Some intercourse with his fellow-creatures seemed imperatively necessary if the prisoner's life and reason were to be preserved to him, and his mind to be kept from feeding upon the dark past. To dark cells she had an unconquerable aversion. Sometimes she would picture the possibility of the return of days of persecution, and urge one consideration founded upon the self-interest of the authorities themselves. "They may be building, though they little think it, dungeons for their children and their children's children if times of religious persecution or political disturbance should return." For this reason, if for no other, she urged upon those who were contemplating the erection of new prisons, the prime necessity of constructing those prisons so as to enable them to conform to the requirements of humanity.

Her opinions and reasons for and against the solitary system of confinement are well given in a communication sent to M. de Beranger after a visit to Paris, during which the subject of prison-management had formed a staple theme of discussion in the _salons_ of that city.

With much practical insight and clearness of reasoning, Mrs. Fry marshalled all the stock arguments, adding thereto such as her own experience taught.

In favor of the solitary system were to be urged:--

1st. The prevention of all contamination by their fellow-prisoners.

2d. The impossibility of forming intimacies calculated to be injurious in after life.

3d. The increased solitude, which afforded larger opportunities for serious reflection and, if so disposed, repentance and prayer by the criminal.

4th. The prevention of total loss of character on the part of the prisoner, seeing that the _privacy_ of the confinement would operate against the recognition of him by fellow-prisoners upon regaining their liberty.

Against it the following reasons could be urged--

1st. The extreme liability to ill-treatment or indulgence, according to the mood and disposition of the officers in charge.

2d. The extreme difficulty of obtaining a sufficiently large number of honest, high-principled, just men and women, to carry out the solitary system with impartiality, firmness, and, at the same time, kindness.

This reason was strongly corroborated by the governors of Cold Bath Fields Prison, and the great Central Prison at Beaulieu. Their own large experience had taught them the difficulty of securing officers in all respects _fit to be trusted_ with the administration of such a system.

3d. The very frequent result of the administration of this system by incompetent or unfit officers would be the moral contamination of the prisoners.

4th. The enormous expense of providing officers and accommodation sufficient to include all the criminals of the country.

5th. The certainty of injury to body and mind from the continuance of solitude for life. The digestive and vocal organs, and the reason would inevitable suffer. In proof she quoted the notorious imbecility of the aged monks of La Trappe: "We are credibly informed of the fact (in addition to what we have known at home) that amongst the monks of La Trappe few attain the age of sixty years without having suffered an absolute decay of their mental powers, and fallen into premature childishness."

6th. The danger lest increased solitude instead of promoting repentance, should furnish favorable hours for the premeditation of new crimes, and so confirm the criminal in hardened sin.

7th. The impossibility of fitting the prisoners for returning to society under the system; whereas by teaching them useful employments and trades, and training them to work in company for remuneration, habits and customs may be induced which should aid in a life-long reformation.

Two or three years after the enunciation of these principles and reasons, Mrs. Fry addressed a valuable communication to Colonel Jebb in reference to the new Model Prison at Pentonville, then (1841,) in course of construction:--

We were much interested by our visit to this new prison. We think the building generally does credit to the architect, particularly in some important points, as ventilation, the plan of the galleries, the chapel, etc., and we were also much pleased to observe the arrangement for water in each cell, and that the prisoner could ring a bell in case of wanting help.

The points that made us uneasy were, first, the dark cells, which we consider should never exist in a Christian and civilized country. I think having prisoners placed in these cells a punishment peculiarly liable to abuse. Whatever restrictions may be made for the governor of a jail, and however lenient those who _now_ govern, we can little calculate upon the change the future may produce, or how these very cells may one day be made use of in case of either political or religious disturbance in the country, or how any poor prisoner may be placed in them in case of a more severe administration of justice.

I think no person should be placed in _total_ darkness; there should be a ray of light admitted. These cells appear to me calculated to excite such awful terror in the mind, not merely from their darkness but from the circ.u.mstance of their being placed within another cell, as well as being in such a dismal situation.

I am always fearful of any punishment, beyond what the law publicly authorizes, being privately inflicted by any keeper or officer of a prison; for my experience most strongly proves that there are few men who are themselves sufficiently governed and regulated by Christian principle to be fit to have such power entrusted to their hands; and further, I observe that officers in prisons have generally so much to try and to provoke them that they themselves are apt to become hardened to the more tender feelings of humanity.

They necessarily also see so much through the eyes of those under them, turnkeys and inferior officers, (too many of whom are little removed either in education or morals from the prisoners themselves,) that their judgments are not always just.

The next point that struck us was, that in the cells generally the windows have that description of gla.s.s in them that even the sight of the sky is entirely precluded. I am aware that the motive is to prevent the possibility of seeing a fellow-prisoner; but I think a prison for separate confinement should be so constructed that the culprits may at least see the sky--indeed, I should prefer more than the sky--without the liability of seeing fellow-prisoners. My reason for this opinion is, that I consider it a very important object to preserve the health of mind and body in these poor creatures, and I am certain that separate confinement produces an unhealthy state both of mind and body. Therefore everything should be done to counteract this influence, which I am sure is baneful in its moral tendency; for I am satisfied that a sinful course of life increases the tendency to mental derangement, as well as to bodily disease; and I am as certain that an unhealthy state of mind and body has generally a demoralizing influence; and I consider light, air, and the power of seeing something beyond the mere monotonous walls of a cell highly important. I am aware that air is properly admitted, also light; still I do think they ought to see the sky, the changes in which make it a most pleasant object for those who are closely confined.

When speaking of health of body and mind, I also mean health of soul, which is of the first importance, for I do not believe that a despairing or stupefied state is suitable for leading poor sinners to a Saviour's feet for pardon and salvation.