[Ill.u.s.tration: A ROMAN FREIGHT SHIP The ship lies beside the wharf at Ostia. In the after-part of the vessel is a cabin with two windows. Notice the figure of Victory on the top of the single mast and the decoration of the mainsail with the wolf and twins. The ship is steered by a pair of huge paddles.]

LOCAL TRADING AT ROME

The importation and disposal of foreign goods at Rome furnished employment for many thousands of traders. There were great wholesale merchants whose warehouses stored grain and all kinds of merchandise. There were also many retail shopkeepers. They might be sometimes the slaves or freedmen of a wealthy n.o.ble who preferred to keep in the background. Sometimes they were men of free birth. The feeling that petty trade was unworthy of a citizen, though strong in republican days, tended to disappear under the empire.

FREE LABORERS AT ROME

The slaves at Rome, like those at Athens, [25] carried on many industrial tasks. We must not imagine, however, that all the manual labor of the city was performed by bondmen. The number of slaves even tended to decline, when there were no more border wars to yield captives for the slave markets. The growing custom of emanc.i.p.ation worked in the same direction.

We find in this period a large body of free laborers, not only in the capital city, but in all parts of the empire.

THE GUILDS

The workmen engaged in a particular calling frequently formed clubs, or guilds. [26] There were guilds of weavers, shoe-makers, jewelers, painters, musicians, and even of gladiators. These a.s.sociations were not organized for the purpose of securing higher wages and shorter hours by strikes or threat of strikes. They seem to have existed chiefly for social and religious purposes. Each guild had its clubhouse for official meetings and banquets. Each guild had its special deity, such as Vesta, the fire G.o.ddess, for bakers, and Bacchus, the wine G.o.d, for innkeepers. Every year the guildsmen held a festival, in honor of their patron, and marched through the streets with banners and the emblems of their trade. Nearly all the guilds had as one main object the provision of a proper funeral and tomb for deceased members. The humble laborer found some consolation in the thought that he belonged to a club of friends and fellow workers, who after death would give him decent burial and keep his memory green.

LIFE OF THE WORKING CLa.s.sES

Free workingmen throughout the Roman world appear to have led reasonably happy lives. They were not driven or enslaved by their employers or forced to labor for long hours in grimy, unwholesome factories. Slums existed, but no sweatshops. If wages were low, so also was the cost of living.

Wine, oil, and wheat flour were cheap. The mild climate made heavy clothing unnecessary and permitted an outdoor life. The public baths-- great clubhouses--stood open to every one who could pay a trifling fee.

[27] Numerous holidays, celebrated with games and shows, brightened existence. On the whole we may conclude that working people at Rome and in the provinces enjoyed greater comfort during this period than had ever been their lot in previous ages.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A ROMAN VILLA Wall painting, Pompeii.]

GREAT FORTUNES

It was an age of millionaires. There had been rich men, such as Cra.s.sus, [28] during the last century of the republic; their numbers increased and their fortunes rose during the first century of the empire. The philosopher Seneca, a tutor of Nero, is said to have made twelve million dollars within four years by the emperor's favor. Narcissus, the secretary of Claudius, made sixteen million dollars--the largest Roman fortune on record. This sum must be multiplied four or five times to find its modern equivalent, since in antiquity interest rates were higher and the purchasing power of money was greater than to-day. Such private fortunes are surpa.s.sed only by those of the present age.

LUXURY AND EXTRAVAGANCE

The heaping-up of riches in the hands of a few brought its natural consequence in luxury and extravagance. The palaces of the wealthy, with their gardens, baths, picture galleries, and other features, were costly to build and costly to keep up. The money not lavished by a n.o.ble on his town house could be easily sunk on his villas in the country. All Italy, from the bay of Naples, to the foot of the Alps, was dotted with elegant residences, having flower gardens, game preserves, fishponds, and artificial lakes. Much senseless waste occurred at banquets and entertainments. Vast sums were spent on vessels of gold and silver, jewelry, clothing, and house furnishings. Even funerals and tombs required heavy outlays. A capitalist of imperial Rome could get rid of a fortune in selfish indulgences almost as readily as any modern millionaire not blessed with a refined taste or with public spirit.

SOME SOCIAL EVILS

Some of the customs of the time appear especially shocking. The brutal gladiatorial games [29] were a pa.s.sion with every one, from the emperor to his lowest subject. Infanticide was a general practice. Marriage grew to be a mere civil contract, easily made and easily broken. Common as divorce had become, the married state was regarded as undesirable. Augustus vainly made laws to encourage matrimony and discourage celibacy. Suicide, especially among the upper cla.s.ses, was astonishingly frequent. No one questioned another's right to leave this life at pleasure. The decline of the earlier paganism left many men without a deep religious faith to combat the growing doubt and worldliness of the age.

BRIGHTER ASPECTS OF ROMAN SOCIETY

Yet this dark picture needs correction at many points. It may be questioned whether the vice, luxury, and wickedness of ancient Rome, Antioch, or Alexandria much exceeded what our great modern capitals can show, During this period, moreover, many remarkable improvements took place in social life and manners. There was an increasing kindliness and charity. The weak and the infirm were better treated. The education of the poor was encouraged by the founding of free schools. Wealthy citizens of the various towns lavished their fortunes on such public works as baths, aqueducts, and temples, for the benefit of all cla.s.ses. Even the slaves were much better treated. Imperial laws aimed to check the abuses of cruelty, overwork, and neglect, and philosophers recommended to masters the exercise of gentleness and mercy toward slaves. In fact, the first and second centuries of our era were marked by a great growth of the humanitarian spirit.

73. THE GRAECO-ROMAN WORLD

THE NEW COSMOPOLITANISM

Just as the conquests of Alexander, by uniting the Orient to Greece, produced a Graeco-Oriental civilization, so now the expansion of Rome over the Mediterranean formed another world-wide culture, in which both Greek and Roman elements met and mingled. A new sense of cosmopolitanism arose in place of the old civic or national patriotism. Roman elements met and mingled. A new sense of cosmopolitanism arose in place of the old civic or national patriotism.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A ROMAN TEMPLE The best preserved of Roman temples. Located at Nimes in southern France, where it is known as La Maison Carree ("the square house"). The structure is now used as a museum of antiquities.]

UNIFYING AND CIVILIZING FORCES This cosmopolitan feeling was the outcome of those unifying and civilizing forces which the imperial system set at work. The extension of Roman citizenship broke down the old distinction between the citizens and the subjects of Rome. The development of Roman law carried its principles of justice and equity to the remotest regions. The spread of the Latin language provided the western half of the empire with a speech as universal there as Greek was in the East. Trade and travel united the provinces with one another and with Rome. The worship of the Caesars dimmed the l.u.s.ter of all local worships and kept constantly before men's minds the idea of Rome and of her mighty emperors. Last, but not least important, was the fusion of alien peoples through intermarriage with Roman soldiers and colonists. "How many settlements," exclaims the philosopher Seneca, "have been planted in every province! Wherever the Roman conquers, there he dwells." [30]

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES The amphitheater at Arles in southern France was used during the Middle Ages as a fortress then as a prison and finally became the resort of criminals and paupers. The ill.u.s.tration shows it before the removal of the buildings about 1830 A.D. Bullfights still continue in the arena, where, in Roman times, animal baitings and gladiatorial games took place.]

MONUMENTS OF ROMAN RULE

The best evidence of Rome's imperial rule is found in the monuments she raised in every quarter of the ancient world. Some of the grandest ruins of antiquity are not in the capital city itself, or even in Italy, but in Spain, France, England, Greece, Switzerland, Asia Minor, Syria, and North Africa. Among these are Hadrian's Wall in Britain, the splendid aqueduct known as the Pont du Gard near Nimes in southern France, the beautiful temple called La Maison Carree in the same city, the Olympieum at Athens, and the temple of the Sun at Baalbec in Syria Thus the lonely hilltops, the desolate desert sands, the mountain fastnesses of three continents bear witness even now to the widespreading sway of Rome.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A MEGALITH AT BAALBEC A block of stone 68 feet long 10 feet high and weighing about 1500 tons.

It is still attached to its bed in the quarry not far from the ruins of Baalbec in Syria. The temples of Baalbec seen in the distance were built by the Romans in the third century A.D. The majestic temple of the Sun contains three megaliths almost as huge as the one represented in the ill.u.s.tration. They are the largest blocks known to have been used in any structure. For a long time they were supposed to be relics of giant builders.]

ROMANIZATION OF EAST AND WEST

The civilized world took on the stamp and impress of Rome. The East, indeed, remained Greek in language and feeling, but even there Roman law and government prevailed, Roman roads traced their unerring course, and Roman architects erected majestic monuments. The West became completely Roman. North Africa, Spain, Gaul, distant Dacia, and Britain were the seats of populous cities, where the Latin language was spoken and Roman customs were followed. From them came the emperors. They furnished some of the most eminent men of letters. Their schools of grammar and rhetoric attracted students from Rome itself. Thus unconsciously, but none the less surely, local habits and manners, national religions and tongues, provincial inst.i.tutions and ways of thinking disappeared from the ancient world.

STUDIES

1. On an outline map indicate the additions to Roman territory: during the reign of Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.; during the period 14-180 A.D.

2. On an outline map indicate ten important cities of the Roman Empire.

3. Connect the proper events with the following dates: 79 A.D.; 180 A.D.; and 14 A.D.

4. Whom do you consider the greater man, Julius Caesar or Augustus? Give reasons for your answer.

5. Compare the Augustan Age at Rome with the Age of Pericles at Athens.

6. What is the _Monumentum Ancyranum_ and its historic importance (ill.u.s.tration Monumentum Ancyranum, section 66. Augustus, 31 B.C.-l4 A.D., topic The Augustan Age)?

7. How did the worship of the Caesars connect itself with ancestor worship?

8. In the reign of what Roman emperor was Jesus born? In whose reign was he crucified?

9. How did the "year of anarchy" after Nero's death exhibit a weakness in the imperial system?

10. How many provinces existed under Trajan?

11. What modern countries are included within the limits of the Roman Empire in the age of Trajan?

12. Compare the extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan with (a) the empire of Alexander; and (b) the empire of Darius.

13. Give the Roman names of Spain, Italy, Gaul, Germany, Britain, Scotland, and Ireland.

14. Contrast the Roman armies under the empire with the standing armies of modern Europe.

15. Trace on the map, page 205, the Roman roads in Britain.

16. "To the Roman city the empire was political death; to the provinces it was the beginning of new life." Comment on this statement.

17. Why should Rome have made a greater success of her imperial policy than either Athens or Sparta?