(1) Direct or Ostensive.

(2) Indirect or Ad Impossibile.

-- 669. The problem of direct, or ostensive, reduction is this--

Given any mood in one of the imperfect figures (II, III and IV) how to alter the form of the premisses so as to arrive at the same conclusion in the perfect figure, or at one from which it can be immediately inferred. The alteration of the premisses is effected by means of immediate inference and, where necessary, of transposition.

-- 670. The problem of indirect reduction, or reductio (per deductionem) ad impossibile, is this--Given any mood in one of the imperfect figures, to show by means of a syllogism in the perfect figure that its conclusion cannot be false.

-- 671. The object of reduction is to extend the sanction of the Dictum de Omni et Nullo to the imperfect figures, which do not obviously conform to it.

-- 672. The mood required to be reduced is called the Reducend; that to which it conforms, when reduced, is called the Reduct.

_Direct or Ostensive Reduction._

-- 673. In the ordinary form of direct reduction, the only kind of immediate inference employed is conversion, either simple or by limitation; but the aid of permutation and of conversion by negation and by contraposition may also be resorted to.

-- 674. There are two moods, Baroko and Bokardo, which cannot be reduced ostensively except by the employment of some of the means last mentioned. Accordingly, before the introduction of permutation into the scheme of logic, it was necessary to have recourse to some other expedient, in order to demonstrate the validity of these two moods. Indirect reduction was therefore devised with a special view to the requirements of Baroko and Bokardo: but the method, as will be seen, is equally applicable to all the moods of the imperfect figures.

-- 675. The mnemonic lines, 'Barbara, Celarent, etc., provide complete directions for the ostensive reduction of all the moods of the second, third, and fourth figures to the first, with the exception of Baroko and Bokardo. The application of them is a mere mechanical trick, which will best be learned by seeing the process performed.

-- 676. Let it be understood that the initial consonant of each name of a figured mood indicates that the reduct will be that mood which begins with the same letter. Thus the B of Bramantip indicates that Bramantip, when reduced, will become Barbara.

-- 677. Where m appears in the name of a reducend, me shall have to take as major that premiss which before was minor, and vice versa-in other words, to transpose the premisses, m stands for mutatio or metathesis.

-- 678. s, when it follows one of the premisses of a reducend, indicates that the premiss in question must be simply converted; when it follows the conclusion, as in Disamis, it indicates that the conclusion arrived at in the first figure is not identical in form with the original conclusion, but capable of being inferred from it by simple conversion. Hence s in the middle of a name indicates something to be done to the original premiss, while s at the end indicates something to be done to the new conclusion.

-- 679. P indicates conversion per accidens, and what has just been said of s applies, mutatis mutandis, to p.

-- 680. k may be taken for the present to indicate that Baroko and Bokardo cannot be reduced ostensively.

-- 681. FIGURE II.

Cesare. / Celarent.

No A is B. = / No B is A.

All C is B. / All C is B.

.'. No C is A. / .'. No C is A.

Camestres. / Celarent.

All A is B. = / No B is C.

No C is B. / All A is B.

.'. No C is A. / .'. No A is C.

.'. No C is A.

Festino. Ferio.

No A is B. / No B is A.

Some C is B. | = | Some C is B.

.'. Some C is not A./ .'. Some C is not A.

[Baroko]

-- 682. FIGURE III.

Darapti. / Darii.

All B is A. = / All B is A.

All B is C. / Some C is B.

.'. Some C is A. / Some C is A.

Disamis. / Darii.

Some B is A. = / All B is C.

All B is C. / Some A is B.

.'. Some C is A. / .'. Some A is C.

.'. Some C is A.

Datisi. / Darii.

All B is A. = / All B is A.

Some B is C. / Some C is B.

.'. Some C is A. / .'. Some C is A.

Felapton. / Ferio.

No B is A. = / No B is A.

All B is C. / Some C is B.

.'. Some C is not-A. / .'. Some C is not-A.

[Bokardo].

Ferison. / Ferio.

No B is A. = / No B is A.

Some B is C. / Some C is B .'. Some C is not A. / .'. Some C is not A.

-- 683. FIGURE IV.

Bramantip. / Barbara.

All A is B. = / All B is C.

All B is C. / All A is B.

.. Some C is A. / .. All A is C.

.'. Some C is A.

Camenes Celarent All A is B / No B is C.

No B is C. | = | All A is B.

.. No C is A./ .'. No A is C.

.'. No C is A.

Dimaris. Darii.

Some A is B. / All B is C.

All B is C. | = | Some A is B.

.'. Some C is A./ .'. Some A is C.