2. Although we are not quite sure how Dr Falconer in tends to apply the law of phyllotaxis to ill.u.s.trate his idea, we fancy that a pertinent ill.u.s.tration may be drawn from it in this way. There are two species of phyllotaxis, perfectly distinct, and we suppose, not mathematically reducible the one to the other, viz.: (1.) That of alternate leaves, with its vane ties and (2.) That of verticillate leaves, of which opposite leaves present the simplest case That although generally constant a change from one variety of alternate phyllotaxis to an other should occur on the same axis, or on successive axes, is not surprising, the different sorts being terms of a regular series--although indeed we have not the least idea as to how the change from the one to the other comes to pa.s.s But it is interesting and in this connection perhaps instructive, to remark that while some dicotyledonous plants hold to the verticillate, i.e., opposite-leaved phyllotaxis throughout, a larger number--through the operation of some deep seated and innate principle which we cannot fathom--change abruptly into the other species at the second or third node, and change back again in the flower, or else effect a synthesis of the two species in a manner which is puzzling to understand. Here is a change from one fixed law to another, as unaccountable, if not as great, as from one specific form to another.

An elaborate paper on the vegetation of the Tertiary period in the southeast of France, by Count Gaston de Saporta, published in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles in 1862, vol. xvi., pp. 309-344--which we have not s.p.a.ce to a.n.a.lyze--is worthy of attention from the general inquirer, on account of its a.n.a.lysis of the Tertiary flora into its separate types, Cretaceous, Austral, Tropical, and Boreal, each of which has its separate and different history--and for the announcement that "the hiatus, which, in the idea of most geologists, intervened between the close of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Tertiary, appears to have had no existence, so far as concerns the vegetation; that in general it was not by means of a total overthrow, followed by a complete new emission of species, that the flora has been renewed at each successive period; and that while the plants of Southern Europe inherited from the Cretaceous period more or less rapidly disappeared, as also the austral forms, and later the tropical types (except the laurel, the myrtle, and the Chamaerops humilis), the boreal types, coming later, survived all the others, and now compose, either in Europe, or in the north of Asia, or in North America, the basis of the actual arborescent vegetation. Especially "a very considerable number of forms nearly identical with tertiary forms now exist in America, where they have found, more easily than in our soil--less vast and less extended southward--refuge from ulterior revolutions," The extinction of species is attributed to two kinds of causes; the one material or physical, whether slow or rapid; the other inherent in the nature of organic beings, incessant, but slow, in a manner latent, but somehow a.s.signing to the species, as to the individuals, a limited period of existence, and, in some equally mysterious but wholly natural way, connected with the development of organic types: "By type meaning a collection of vegetable forms constructed upon the same plan of organization, of which they reproduce the essential lineaments with certain secondary modifications, and which appear to run back to a common point of departure."

In this community of types, no less than in the community of certain existing species, Saporta recognizes a prolonged material union between North America and Europe in former times. Most naturalists and geologists reason in the same way--some more cautiously than others--yet perhaps most of them seem not to perceive how far such inferences imply the doctrine of the common origin of related species.

For obvious reasons such doctrines are likely to find more favor with botanists than with zoologists. But with both the advance in this direction is seen to have been rapid and great; yet to us not unexpected. We note, also, an evident disposition, notwithstanding some endeavors to the contrary, to allow derivative hypotheses to stand or fall upon their own merits--to have indeed upon philosophical grounds certain presumptions in their favor--and to be, perhaps, quite as capable of being turned to good account as to bad account in natural theology.[IV-3]

Among the leading naturalists, indeed, such views--taken in the widest sense--have one and, so far as we are now aware, only one thoroughgoing and thoroughly consistent opponent, viz., Mr. Aga.s.siz.

Most naturalists take into their very conception of a species, explicitly or by implication, the notion of a material connection resulting from the descent of the individuals composing it from a common stock, of local origin. Aga.s.siz wholly eliminates community of descent from his idea of species, and even conceives a species to have been as numerous in individuals and as wide-spread over s.p.a.ce, or as segregated in discontinuous s.p.a.ces, from the first as at the later period.

The station which it inhabits, therefore, is with other naturalists in no wise essential to the species, and may not have been the region of its origin. In Aga.s.siz's view the habitat is supposed to mark the origin, and to be a part of the character of the species. The habitat is not merely the place where it is, but a part of what it is.

Most naturalists recognize varieties of species; and many, like De Candolle, have come to conclude that varieties of the highest grade, or races, so far partake of the characteristics of species, and are so far governed by the same laws, that it is often very difficult to draw a clear and certain distinction between the two. Aga.s.siz will not allow that varieties or races exist in Nature, apart from man's agency.

Most naturalists believe that the origin of species is supernatural, their dispersion or particular geographical area, natural, and their extinction, when they disappear, also the result of physical causes. In the view of Aga.s.siz, if rightly understood, all three are equally independent of physical cause and effect, are equally supernatural.

In comparing preceding periods with the present and with each other, most naturalists and palaeontologists now appear to recognize a certain number of species as having survived from one epoch to the next, or even through more than one formation, especially from the Tertiary into the post-Tertiary period, and from that to the present age. Aga.s.siz is understood to believe in total extinctions and total new creations at each successive epoch, and even to recognize no existing species as ever contemporary with extinct ones, except in the case of recent exterminations.

These peculiar views if sustained will effectually dispose of every form of derivative hypothesis.

Returning for a moment to De Candolle's article, we are disposed to notice his criticism of Linnaeus's "definition" of the term species (Philosophia Botanica, No. 157): "Species tot numeramus quot diversae formae in principio sunt creatae"-- which he declares illogical, inapplicable, and the worst that has been propounded. "So, to determine if a form is specific, it is necessary to go back to its origin which is impossible A definition by a character which can never be verified is no definition at all."

Now as Linnaeus practically applied the idea of species with a sagacity which has never been surpa.s.sed and rarely equaled and indeed may be said to have fixed its received meaning in natural history, it may well be inferred that in the phrase above cited he did not so much undertake to frame a logical definition, as to set forth the idea which, in his opinion, lay at the foundation of species; on which basis A.L. Jussieu did construct a logical definition--"Nunc rectius definitur perennis individuorum similium successio continuata generatione renascentium." The fundamental idea of species, we would still maintain, is that of a chain of which genetically-connected individuals are the links. That, in the practical recognition of species, the essential characteristic has to be inferred, is no great objection--the general fact that like engenders like being an induction from a vast number of instances, and the only a.s.sumption being that of the uniformity of Nature. The idea of gravitation, that of the atomic const.i.tution of matter, and the like, equally have to be verified inferentially. If we still hold to the idea of Linnaeus, and of Aga.s.siz, that existing species were created independently and essentially all at once at the beginning of the present era, we could not better the propositions of Linnaeus and of Jussieu. If; on the other hand, the time has come in which we may accept, with De Candolle, their successive origination, at the commencement of the present era or before, and even by derivation from other forms, then the "in principio" of Linnaeus will refer to that time, whenever it was, and his proposition be as sound and wise as ever.

In his "Geographie Botanique" (ii., 1068-1077) De Candolle discusses this subject at length, and in the same interest. Remarking that of the two great facts of species, viz., likeness among the individuals, and genealogical connection, zoologists have generally preferred the latter,[IV-4] while botanists have been divided in opinion, he p.r.o.nounces for the former as the essential thing, in the following argumentative statement:

"Quant a moi, j'ai ete conduit, dans ma definition de l'espece, a mettre decidement la ressemblance au-dessus de caracteres de succession. Ce n'est pas seulement a cause des circonstances propres au regne vegetal, dont je m'occupe exclusivement; ce n'est pas non plus afin de sortir ma definition des theories et de la rendre le plus possible utile aux naturalistes descripteurs et nomenclateurs, c'est aussi par un motif philosophique. En toute chose il faut aller au fond des questions, quand on le peut. Or, pourquoi la reproduction est-elle possible, habituelle, feconde indefiniment, entre des etres organises que nous dirons de la meme espece?

Parce qu'ils se ressemblent et uniquement a cause de cela. Lorsque deux especes ne peuvent, ou, s'il s'agit d'animaux superieurs, ne peuvent et ne veulent se croiser, c'est qu'elles sont tres differentes. Si l'on obtient des crois.e.m.e.nts, c'est que les individus sont a.n.a.logues; si ces crois.e.m.e.nts donnent des produits feconds, c'est que les individus etaient plus a.n.a.logues; si ces produits euxmemes sont feconds, c'est que la ressemblance etait plus grande; s'ils sont fecond habituellement et indefiniment, c'est que la ressemblance interieure et exterieure etait tres grande. Ainsi le degre de ressemblance est le fond; la reproduction en est seulement la manifestation et la mesure, et il est logique de placer la cause au-dessus de l'effet."

We are not yet convinced. We still hold that genealogical connection, rather than mutual resemblance, is the fundamental thing--first on the ground of fact, and then from the philosophy of the case. Practically, no botanist can say what amount of dissimilarity is compatible with unity of species; in wild plants it is sometimes very great, in cultivated races often enormous. De Candolle himself informs us that the different variations which the same oak-tree exhibits arc significant indications of a disposition to set up separate varieties, which becoming hereditary may const.i.tute a race; he evidently looks upon the extreme forms, say of Quercus Robur, as having thus originated; and on this ground, inferred from transitional forms, and not from their mutual resemblance, he includes them in that species. This will be more apparent should the discovery of transitions, which he leads us to expect, hereafter cause the four provisional species which attend Q. Robur to be merged in that species. It may rightly be replied that this conclusion would be arrived at from the likeness step by step in the series of forms; but the cause of the likeness here is obvious. And this brings in our "motif philosophique."

Not to insist that the likeness is after all the variable, not the constant, element--to learn which is the essential thing, resemblance among individuals or their genetic connection--we have only to ask which can be the cause of the other.

In hermaphrodite plants (the normal case), and even as the question is ingeniously put by De Candolle in the above extract, the former surely cannot be the cause of the latter, though it may, in case of crossing, offer occasion. But, on the ground of the most fundamental of all things in the const.i.tution of plants and animals--the fact incapable of further a.n.a.lysis, that individuals reproduce their like, that characteristics are inheritable--the likeness is a direct natural consequence of the genetic succession; "and it is logical to place the cause above the effect."

We are equally disposed to combat a proposition of De Candolle's about genera, elaborately argued in the "Geographie Botanique," and incidentally reaffirmed in his present article, viz., that genera are more natural than species, and more correctly distinguished by people in general, as is shown by vernacular names. But we have no s.p.a.ce left in which to present some evidence to the contrary.

V

SEQUOIA AND ITS HISTORY

THE RELATIONS OF NORTH AMERICAN

TO NORTHEAST ASIAN AND TO

TERTIARY VEGETATION

(A Presidential Address to the American a.s.sociation for the Advancement of Science, at Dubuque, August, 1872)

The session being now happily inaugurated, your presiding officer of the last year has only one duty to perform before he surrenders the chair to his successor. If allowed to borrow a simile from the language of my own profession, I might liken the President of this a.s.sociation to a biennial plant. He flourishes for the year in which he comes into existence, and performs his appropriate functions as presiding officer. When the second year comes round, he is expected to blossom out in an address and disappear.

Each president, as he retires, is naturally expected to contribute something from his own investigations or his own line of study, usually to discuss some particular scientific topic.

Now, although I have cultivated the field of North American botany, with some a.s.siduity, for more than forty years, have reviewed our vegetable hosts, and a.s.signed to no small number of them their names and their place in the ranks, yet, so far as our own wide country is concerned, I have been to a great extent a closet botanist. Until this summer I had not seen the Mississippi, nor set foot upon a prairie.

To gratify a natural interest, and to gain some t.i.tle for addressing a body of practical naturalists and explorers, I have made a pilgrimage across the continent. I have sought and viewed in their native haunts many a plant and flower which for me had long bloomed unseen, or only in the hortus siccus.

I have been able to see for myself what species and what forms const.i.tute the main features of the vegetation of each successive region, and record--as the vegetation unerringly does--the permanent characteristics of its climate.

Pa.s.sing on from the eastern district, marked by its equably distributed rainfall, and therefore naturally forest-clad, I have seen the trees diminish in number, give place to wide prairies, restrict their growth to the borders of streams, and then disappear from the boundless drier plains; have seen gra.s.sy plains change into a brown and sere desert--desert in the common sense, but hardly anywhere botanically so--have seen a fair growth of coniferous trees adorning the more favored slopes of a mountain-range high enough to compel summer showers; have traversed that broad and bare elevated region shut off on both sides by high mountains from the moisture supplied by either ocean, and longitudinally intersected by sierras which seemingly remain as naked as they were born; and have reached at length the westward slopes of that high mountain-barrier which, refreshed by the Pacific, bears the n.o.ble forests of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges, and among them trees which are the wonder of the world. As I stood in their shade, in the groves of Mariposa and Calaveras, and again under the canopy of the commoner redwood, raised on columns of such majestic height and ample girth, it occurred to me that I could not do better than to share with you, upon this occasion, some of the thoughts which possessed my mind.

In their development they may, perhaps, lead us up to questions of considerable scientific interest.

I shall not detain you with any remarks--which would now be trite--upon the size or longevity of these far-famed Sequoia-trees, or of the sugar-pines, incense-cedar, and firs a.s.sociated with them, of which even the prodigious bulk of the dominating Sequoia does not sensibly diminish the grandeur.

Although no account and no photographic representation of either species of the far-famed Sequoia-trees gives any adequate impression of their singular majesty--still less of their beauty--yet my interest in them did not culminate merely or mainly in considerations of their size and age. Other trees, in other parts of the world, may claim to be older. Certain Australian gumtrees (Eucalypti) are said to be taller. Some, we are told, rise so high that they might even cast a flicker of shadow upon the summit of the Pyramid of Cheops. Yet the oldest of them doubtless grew from seed which was shed long after the names of the pyramid-builders had been forgotten. So far as we can judge from the actual counting of the layers of several trees, no Sequoia now alive sensibly antedates the Christian era.

Nor was I much impressed with an attraction of man's adding. That the more remarkable of these trees should bear distinguishing appellations seems proper enough; but the tablets of personal names which are affixed to many of them

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in the most visited groves--as if the memory of more or less notable people of our day might be made enduring by the juxtaposition--do suggest some incongruity. When we consider that a hand's breadth at the circ.u.mference of any one of the venerable trunks so placarded has recorded in annual lines the lifetime of the individual thus a.s.sociated with it, one may question whether the next hand's breadth may not measure the fame of some of the names thus ticketed for advent.i.tious immortality. Whether it be the man or the tree that is honored in the connection, probably either would live as long, in fact and in memory, without it.

One notable thing about the Sequoia-trees is their isolation. Most of the trees a.s.sociated with them are of peculiar species, and some of them are nearly as local. Yet every pine, fir, and cypress of California is in some sort familiar, because it has near relatives in other parts of the world.

But the redwoods have none. The redwood--including in that name the two species of "big-trees"--belongs to the general Cypress family, but is sui generis. Thus isolated systematically, and extremely isolated geographically, and so wonderful in size and port, they more than other trees suggest questions.

Were they created thus local and lonely, denizens of California only; one in limited numbers in a few choice spots on the Sierra Nevada, the other along the Coast Range from the Bay of Monterey to the frontiers of Oregon?

Are they veritable Melchizedeks, without pedigree or early relationship, and possibly fated to be without descent?

Or are they now coming upon the stage--or rather were they coming but for man's interference--to play a part in the future?

Or are they remnants, sole and scanty survivors of a race that has played a grander part in the past, but is now verging to extinction? Have they had a career, and can that career be ascertained or surmised, so that we may at least guess whence they came, and how, and when?

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Time was, and not long ago, when such questions as these were regarded as useless and vain--when students of natural history, unmindful of what the name denotes, were content with a knowledge of things as they now are, but gave little heed as to how they came to be so. Now such questions are held to be legitimate, and perhaps not wholly unanswerable. It cannot now be said that these trees inhabit their present restricted areas simply because they are there placed in the climate and soil of all the world most congenial to them. These must indeed be congenial, or they would not survive. But when we see how the Australian Eucalyptus-trees thrive upon the Californian coast, and how these very redwoods flourish upon another continent; how the so-called wild-oat (Avena sterilis of the Old World) has taken full possession of California; how that cattle and horses, introduced by the Spaniard, have spread as widely and made themselves as much at home on the plains of La Plata as on those of Tartary; and that the cardoon-thistle-seeds, and others they brought with them, have multiplied there into numbers probably much exceeding those extant in their native lands; indeed, when we contemplate our own race, and our particular stock, taking such recent but dominating possession of this New World; when we consider how the indigenous flora of islands generally succ.u.mbs to the foreigners which come in the train of man; and that most weeds (i.e., the prepotent plants in open soil) of all temperate climates are not "to the manner born," but are self-invited intruders--we must needs abandon the notion of any primordial and absolute adaptation of plants and animals to their habitats, which may stand in lieu of explanation, and so preclude our inquiring any further. The harmony of Nature and its admirable perfection need not be regarded as inflexible and changeless. Nor need Nature be likened to a statue, or a cast in rigid bronze, but rather to an organism, with play and adaptability of parts, and life and even soul informing the whole. Under the former view Nature

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would be "the faultless monster which the world ne'er saw," but inscrutable as the Sphinx, whom it were vain, or worse, to question of the whence and whither. Under the other, the perfection of Nature, if relative, is multifarious and ever renewed; and much that is enigmatical now may find explanation in some record of the past.

That the two species of redwood we are contemplating originated as they are and where they are, and for the part they are now playing, is, to say the least, not a scientific supposition, nor in any sense a probable one. Nor is it more likely that they are destined to play a conspicuous part in the future, or that they would have done so, even if the Indian's fires and the white man's axe had spared them. The redwood of the coast (Sequoia sempervirens) had the stronger hold upon existence, forming as it did large forests throughout a narrow belt about three hundred miles in length, and being so tenacious of life that every large stump sprouts into a copse. But it does not pa.s.s the bay of Monterey, nor cross the line of Oregon, although so grandly developed not far below it. The more remarkable Sequoia gigantea of the Sierra exists in numbers so limited that the separate groves may be reckoned upon the fingers, and the trees of most of them have been counted, except near their southern limit, where they are said to be more copious. A species limited in individuals holds its existence by a precarious tenure; and this has a foothold only in a few sheltered spots, of a happy mean in temperature, and locally favored with moisture in summer. Even there, for some reason or other, the pines with which they are a.s.sociated (Pinus Lambertiana and P. ponderosa), the firs (Abies grandis and A. amabilis), and even the incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), possess a great advantage, and, though they strive in vain to emulate their size, wholly overpower the Sequoias in numbers. "To him that hath shall be given." The force of numbers eventually wins. At least in the commonly-visited groves Sequoia gigantea is invested in its

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last stronghold, can neither advance into more exposed positions above, nor fall back into drier and barer ground below, nor hold its own in the long-run where it is, under present conditions; and a little further drying of the climate, which must once have been much moister than now, would precipitate its doom. Whatever the individual longevity, certain if not speedy is the decline of a race in which a high death-rate afflicts the young. Seedlings of the big trees occur not rarely, indeed, but in meagre proportion to those of a.s.sociated trees; T small indeed is the chance that any of these will attain to "the days of the years of their fathers." "Few and evil" are .: the days of all the forest likely to be, while man, both bar-barian and civilized, torments them with fires, fatal at once to seedlings, and at length to the aged also. The forests of California, proud as the State may be of them, are already too scanty and insufficient for her uses. Two lines, such as may be drawn with one sweep of a brush over the map, would cover them all. The coast redwood--the most important tree in California, although a million times more numerous than its relative of the Sierra--is too good to live long. Such is its value for lumber and its accessibility, that, judging the future by the past, it is not likely, in its primeval growth, to outlast its rarer fellow-species.