"The nearness of the sun while south of the equator, the shortness of the summer, and the corresponding distance of the sun and length of the winter would tend to give the southern hemisphere great extremes of heat and cold, a short and hot summer and a long and cold winter. For this also there is a most interesting compensation in the comparative amount of land and water north and south of the equator. Much more than one-half of the dry land lies in the northern hemisphere. This would tend to give the northern hemisphere extremes of heat and cold. South of the equator there is comparatively little land and much water, which tends to give the southern hemisphere evenness of temperature. The inequalities of the earth's...o...b..t and the earth's motion in its...o...b..t we find counterbalanced by the arrangement of land and water upon the earth's surface.

"In connection with this we may notice still another compensation in the elevation of the lands by which the burning heat of the torrid zone and the rigors of the colder zones are more or less diminished. The greater the elevation of any region of country, the cooler must be its climate.

Physical geographers like Baron von Humboldt and Guyot have made calculations which show that those grand divisions of the earth which lie in the hot regions of the earth are most elevated above the sea level.

South America lies higher than North America, Asia is more elevated than Europe, and Africa is more elevated than Asia. The continents rise as they approach the equator and sink toward the sea level as they come nearer the poles. As these colder lands approach the water level their valleys sink beneath the sea, their coast lines become deeply indented with bays and gulfs, and lakes abound. Thus the warmer waters of the sea are interspersed among the cooler lands, and the temperature of the lands is raised. The very elevation of the continents and the configuration of the lands have a providential relation to the temperature and climate of the world. We cannot suppose that arrangements like these, so aptly fitted to the needs of man, came by chance. In the unmeasured ages past, while this earth was in preparation for man, G.o.d had the beneficent _end_ in view; nay, in the very beginning, the whole plan and its beautiful completion was had clearly in mind. Millions of ages ago the great Creator tenderly considered the comfort and well-being of the human race, the latest born of his creatures, in these last ages.

"As a general statement, the torrid zone receives an excess of heat, while the frigid zones receive too little, and the temperate zones, lying between, receive, at different times and places, sometimes too little and sometimes too much. The providential arrangements for equalizing temperature are, then, chiefly arrangements for conveying heat from the overheated tropical regions and scattering it over the temperate and polar regions. First among these means we will notice the _trade-winds_, or, as for the sake of brevity they are often called, 'the trades.' Will you tell us, Samuel, how winds are caused?"

"The air is heated at some place and expands; it becomes lighter and rises, while the colder air around rushes in to fill its place."

"You use the words which are commonly employed in explaining the origin of winds, and very likely your idea is right, but the language needs a little correction. The warm air does not rise of its own accord, so to speak, but is pressed upward. The warm air is expanded; it presses outward and upward; the same weight of warm air occupies more s.p.a.ce than cold air; the warm air rises and overtops the surrounding air, and then flows off in order to reach the common level. The column of warm air is lighter than the cooler air, and cannot balance it; consequently, the cold air sinks down, pressing the warm air upward. In this manner an ascending current of warm air is formed, and also currents of cold air flowing from every direction toward the warm centre. These currents continue until the temperature of the air is equalized.

"The atmosphere is commonly believed to be forty-five or fifty miles in height, though some men have estimated its height as very much less than this, while others believe it to be six or seven hundred miles in height.

Are we to suppose that the column of heated air reaches to the top of the atmosphere?"

"I think not," answered Mr. Hume. "The rarefaction of the lower part of the column renders the whole column lighter than the air around, and the warm air, as we know by the movements of the clouds, after rising a little way, spreads off in every direction, forming upper currents corresponding to the currents below, but moving in the opposite direction."

"Only a few days ago," remarked Peter, "I saw in the same part of the sky clouds moving in exactly opposite directions, and others which seemed to be standing still. I knew how one layer of clouds might be moving north and another layer moving south, but I did not understand why some should be standing still."

"Do you imagine, Peter, that the upper and lower currents of air, moving in opposite directions, come sharply together, the one sliding against the other?"

"I think not," said Peter.

"Supposing, then, as is certainly true, that a stratum of still air lies between the upper and lower winds, does not that explain how certain clouds might be standing still while the others were moving?"

"I might have thought of that myself."

"But how does this carry heat from the warmer region to the colder regions around?" asked Ansel. "I see how the colder air coming in would cool the warm region, and how the warm ascending air would carry away the excess of heat, but how do the cooler regions get the advantage of this heat?"

"That is just what I was on the point of explaining. Do you remember what was said about the production of cold by expansion and of heat by compression?"

"I remember that if air be rarefied by removing pressure from it, its temperature falls: I think you said that a part of its sensible heat becomes latent; and if air be compressed, its temperature rises. I have seen experiments with the air pump and condenser to prove this."

"That principle explains the transfer of heat by winds. If the heated air rose to the upper regions, and there radiated its heat, nothing would be gained; the heat would be simply radiated into s.p.a.ce. But as the warm air rises pressure is more and more removed from it; it expands; its sensible heat becomes latent and is thus kept from radiation; its temperature falls, but not from loss of heat. This rarefied air forms the upper current flowing away from the heated centre. In due time this air must come to the surface of the earth again. Whenever this takes place the air is brought again under pressure; it is compressed, and its latent heat becomes again sensible. Heat is thus transferred from the warmer region to the colder in a latent condition, so that it cannot be lost. We must now apply this to the trade-winds. What are the trade-winds, Mr. Hume?"

"They are regular winds blowing from a little north and south of the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn south-west and north-west toward the equator."

"These winds are called _trade-winds_," continued Mr. Wilton, "on account of their great advantage to trade or commerce. The regular and steady sweep of these winds bears the merchantmen rapidly and safely on their way. The formation of 'the trades' is easily explained. By the intense heat of the sun under the equator the air is greatly expanded and rarefied; the heated air rises along the whole line of the equator; from both sides the cooler air presses in, is heated, and rises; thus steady winds are formed from the tropics, or a little beyond the tropics, toward the equator. If the earth had no rotation upon its axis, these winds would blow directly toward the equator, exactly south and north. The rotation of the earth gives the trade-winds their oblique, south-west and north-west direction. Suppose that a single particle of air at the tropic of Cancer starts upon its journey toward the equator. At its starting it has the same motion eastward as the surface of the earth at that place, that is, about nine hundred and fifty miles per hour. But as it moves on southward the degrees of longitude become longer and the motion of the earth's surface becomes more rapid, till at the equator its motion is one thousand and forty miles per hour. But the particle of air we are watching is not fastened to the earth's surface, and as the earth moves more rapidly the nearer we come to the equator, the particle of air falls behind, that is, the air moves southward and eastward, but the earth moves eastward more rapidly than the air, so that the air falls behind and seems to be moving westward. The result is that the air upon the earth's surface moves south-west. That which takes place with a single particle takes place with the whole body of the air, and that which takes place north of the equator takes place south of it also, producing north-west winds. On reaching the equator the winds from the north and the south meet and stop, forming the equatorial calms, and mingling together, they rise into the higher regions. In rising, the air bears away heat from the torrid zone, and this heat, rendered latent by the expansion of the air, is carried north and south by the upper currents as far as the limits of 'the trades.' In due time these upper currents descend and their latent becomes sensible heat, and is used in raising the temperature. Mr. Hume, can you suggest any method by which we can estimate the amount of heat which is carried north and south by the return trades?"

"I know of no method, except to estimate the amount of heat necessary to raise that flood of air which pours in from the temperate zones to the equatorial heat. That immense amount of heat must, nearly all of it, be carried away to the temperate regions."

"This is the general explanation of the trade-winds. You must understand, however, that, in certain regions and under certain conditions, the trades are liable to interruption or change of direction. Desert regions within or near the tropics give rise to local winds which overpower the trades.

In Southern Asia, while the sun is north of the equator, the land becomes so much hotter than the sea under the equator that the trade-wind is overpowered and reversed, forming a wind which blows to the north-east instead of the south-west. But this is only a beautiful flexure, so to speak, of a general arrangement for the greater advantage of a particular region. By this means the summer winds of Southern Asia come from the sea.

Northern winds would have been dry. Prevailing northern winds would have made the whole of Southern Asia a desert; but the south-west monsoons come from the Indian Ocean laden with vapor, and render Southern Asia a very garden for fertility.

"The next great agency for equalizing temperature between the torrid and temperature zones is the formation and condensation of vapor. This comes in here, because it depends for its efficiency upon the agency of winds.

More than once this method of conveying heat from place to place has been hinted at, but deferred till we came to the proper place to speak of winds.

"The trade-winds, pa.s.sing over from a colder to a warmer climate, are constantly acc.u.mulating vapor. Under the equator the annual evaporation from the surface of the ocean is set down at fifteen feet, or half an inch daily. The formation of this vapor consumes heat which would boil more than eighty feet of ice water. The vapor thus formed is borne upward by the ascending current of heated air. On reaching the higher regions a portion of it is condensed and forms a belt of clouds around the earth.

This belt of clouds along the equator is known as the 'cloud-ring.' This cloud-ring shields the belt of calms from the burning rays of the sun and sends down almost incessant rains. But does not that condensation which forms the cloud-ring set free latent heat, and thus intensify the great heat of the equator? Latent heat becomes sensible, but it is given out into the ascending current of air, and serves only to give it another lift till by expansion of the air it again becomes latent. The heat is simply transferred from the vapor to the air. The vapor which remains uncondensed is borne away on the wings of the return 'trades' to the south and to the north, and in due time is condensed and returns to the earth as rain; the heat which is given out by its condensation, wherever and whenever it is condensed, is given over as latent heat to the keeping of the air, and is pa.s.sed back for use whenever the air descends to the earth.

"Vapor gathered from sea or land is everywhere exerting this equalizing influence upon temperature. Does the temperature rise in any place? Vapor is formed. Every moist body begins to give up its moisture, and the excess of heat is employed in turning this water into vapor. This is the method by which perspiration cools man or beast; whether it be insensible perspiration from the invisible pores of the skin, or perspiration standing in beady drops upon the face of the toiling laborer, vapor is formed and heat is carried away. Have you not noticed on close, muggy days when nothing dries, showing that very little vapor is forming, that perspiration seems to have no cooling effect? It oozes from the skin, but does not evaporate, and hence does not carry off the surplus heat. Animals like dogs and oxen, that do not become wet with perspiration, do not bear heat well; they soon pant and loll, attempting to get rid of the excessive heat through the moist breath and open mouth.

"The sum-total of heat transferred by this agency is too great for comprehension. Look at the Amazon rolling to the ocean a flood broad as an arm of the sea. That great river is brought from the Atlantic Ocean on the shoulders of the trade-wind. As the vapor is slowly lifted by the rise of the land from the sea level to the summits of the Andes, it is condensed, and falls as rain. Well is it for South America that the Andes were thrown up on the western coast, for the winds west of the mountains are dry as a pressed sponge, and the most of that narrow slope is barren and desolate.

South America would be a desert if the Andes ran along the eastern coast.

Look at the Mississippi, and the great rivers of Europe, and the matchless rivers of Southern Asia. All the rivers of the world represent only the _wastage_ of the rain which falls upon the land after supplying the wants of the vegetable kingdom and keeping the lands moist. All this water is lifted into the air by heat, and every movement of vapor is a movement of heat. Every particle of vapor goes freighted with heat. Every cloud driven across the sky represents the transfer of heat, and every transfer is in the direction of equalization. Everywhere the tendency is to equilibrium.

Nature has no processes for transferring heat from colder to warmer regions.

"We may form a conception of the amount of heat transferred by the agency of vapor by estimating the amount of heat-force required to evaporate the water which forms our rain-clouds and lift them into the upper regions.

According to a calculation of Mr. Allen, late of Providence, to evaporate one-eighth of an inch of water daily from that belt of the surface of the earth lying within the tropics, and raise it five thousand feet high, requires 4,700,000,000 horse-power, or one hundred and thirty times the effective force of the whole human race, reckoning it at 250,000,000 able-bodied men. But the actual evaporation from the sea within the tropics is believed to be about half an inch daily--four times as great as Mr. Allen's supposition.

"I see, however, that our time is nearly exhausted, and I wish before closing to revert to that more important theme upon which I spoke this forenoon. I do not know how the truths preached interested or affected you, nor do I now wish to have you tell me. I wish only to say that, as the sermon was preached at your request, I hope it proved applicable to you, and that you will give the truths presented earnest attention.

Consider them well, and make your conclusions known this evening."

The conclusion which the evening made known, you, reader, have already learned.

CHAPTER XIII.

OCEAN CURRENTS AND ICEBERGS.

A week has pa.s.sed since Mr. Hume made his frank confession. He went home no lighter of heart than before, yet he felt in some respects different, for he had attempted to do what was right in the sight of G.o.d. But he did not feel the joy of sins forgiven. He had not looked upon Christ as a Saviour for himself. He felt that G.o.d had distinctly set life and death before him. His doubts were gone; the spiritual world was a reality; Christ stood at his right hand and Satan at his left; he stood where the path of destiny divided, the one path leading up to heavenly seats with Christ, the other leading down to darkness and despair. A voice seemed to be whispering in his ears, "This is the last call." He went to his chamber determined, if possible, to settle the question of life or death before he left the place and before he slept. He took his Bible, and on his knees turned and read the Psalms at random. But the cloud of darkness only gathered deeper. The words of David's penitential Psalm caught his eye: "Against thee, thee only, have I sinned, and done this evil in thy sight."

He felt that these words of David were true in his case also. All his long impenitence and bold unbelief had been against G.o.d. By night and by day, for many a long year, before the sleepless eye of G.o.d, he had lifted up his hand, almost defying the holy One, yet the lightning of G.o.d had not smitten him. He wondered as much at the long-suffering of G.o.d as at his own dreadful daring of the divine wrath. He had been taught better things; he was trained to know the Scriptures and to go reverently to the house of G.o.d, but he had turned from Christ and hope. He read on: "Deliver me from blood-guiltiness, O G.o.d, thou G.o.d of my salvation." He felt that this belonged to himself more than to David. David had shed the blood of natural life, but he had destroyed the souls of men. He had stood chief among unbelievers. He had led young men into infidelity. He had seen them drink in his unbelief like water, throw off all restraint, and rush headlong to ruin. He had wrought a work of evil which he could never undo, and for which he could make no atonement. What was a confession in comparison with the ruin he had caused? What could his confession do for the young men already, perhaps, among the lost through his influence?

Could his late repentance call them back to life and hope? Would G.o.d forgive and raise to heavenly heights a man who had dragged others down to h.e.l.l? Would it be possible that Christ should fill his soul with blessedness while his victims were drinking the wine of the wrath of G.o.d?

A deep horror seized him. The darkness of eternal death seemed to enfold him. Must he, then, after having caught a glimpse of life and joy, be cut off from hope and be driven from G.o.d for ever? This would be just, but he felt that he could not endure it. "O thou great and holy G.o.d," he prayed, "I will ascribe righteousness to thee though thy righteous wrath shall sink me to h.e.l.l; but, O thou merciful G.o.d, my soul cannot endure thy justice. The foretaste of thy wrath fills me with the pangs of eternal death. O G.o.d, have mercy upon me. O G.o.d, blot out my transgressions.

Create in me a clean heart, and renew a right spirit within me. O Christ, whom I have despised, cast me not from thy presence. Help me to submit to thee. Help me to follow thee. Spare me that I may undo something of that which I have done against thy glory and the souls of men. O Jesus, I can do nothing to save myself. O Lord, have mercy on me, the chief of sinners."

He read the invitations and promises of Christ, and prayed again. Again he read and again he prayed. Little by little the promises of Christ stirred a feeble faith in his heart; he felt that there was still hope for him, and with the determination to cast himself upon the sure mercies of Christ and to devote himself to his service, he threw himself upon his bed, and being wearied almost to exhaustion, soon fell asleep. When he awoke it was broad daylight. He had slept a sweet, refreshing sleep. But he was refreshed not merely in body. He woke to a new world. His heart was filled with sweet thankfulness. "How beautiful," he said, "is G.o.d's world! I never saw it so before, but the earth and sky seem clothed in glory. But most wonderful of all is G.o.d's goodness to me. I have rebelled against him all my life, yet he has loved me and sought for my salvation, and now the sunlight of his love has broken through the thick clouds of my sin, and a day of hope and joy has dawned upon my life. Christ has indeed revealed himself. Blessed be his holy name for ever and ever! What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits? I will take the cup of salvation and call upon the name of the Lord. I will pay my vows now in presence of all his people. I will teach transgressors thy ways, and sinners shall be converted unto thee."

All this was known to the people, for during the week Mr. Hume had spoken of it in private and in public. He had told it to Mr. Wilton, and they had rejoiced together.

Ansel and Peter had also regularly presented themselves at every meeting as anxious inquirers desiring the grace of G.o.d. Peter had also on his knees said from the heart, "Here, Lord, I give myself away," and had received the a.s.surance that his sins were forgiven. The Spirit of G.o.d witnessed with his spirit that he was born of G.o.d. He began at once to use all his influence to bring his young friends to Jesus. The addition of two such workers as Mr. Hume and Peter, each moving in his own circle of acquaintances, gave a fresh impulse to the religious interest, which was now becoming deep and pervasive. Especially had Mr. Hume's conversion, so clear and positive, confounded those who had sat "in the seat of the scornful," and many came in now for the first time to see for themselves what it could be that had mastered their cold, clear-headed leader in unbelief.

But Ansel still walked in darkness. He had talked with Mr. Wilton, but no light had entered his mind. He said that he thought he had submitted in all things to the will of G.o.d. He was becoming impatient that Christ had not come to him as to others. This was their condition as they came together upon the Lord's Day. They all understood each other, and had no need now to ask questions or make explanations. Mr. Wilton believed that the study of G.o.d's works would not interrupt the working of the Holy Spirit, and therefore went on with his lesson as usual.

"We have already spoken of the transfer of heat from the torrid to the temperate and frigid zones by the agency of winds and watery vapor. These carry heat chiefly in a latent condition. But great movements of heat take place in a sensible state. In this transfer of heat, also, water is the great carrier. The winds and vapor go freighted with latent heat above, and the waters and wind go freighted with sensible heat below. We will first examine the operation of the ocean currents.

"Not only do rivers run through the lands and hasten to the sea, but in the midst of the oceans rivers are flowing in comparison with which the Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Yang-tse-kiang are rippling brooklets.

The earth is belted by these ocean streams traversing the seas. An ocean current, called the Gulf Stream, issues from the Gulf of Mexico between the Florida coast and the Bahama islands. It flows northward off the coast of the United States, gradually increasing in breadth and spreading over the Atlantic Ocean. It is deflected by the New England coast and the great shoals off Newfoundland, called the Grand Banks, or else by another current flowing southward from Baffin's Bay, and strikes across the North Atlantic, bathing the sh.o.r.es of the British islands and reaching even to Iceland.

"The general outline of the ocean currents is this: issuing from the South Pacific, a current flowing eastward splits upon Cape Horn. The western portion, called Humboldt's current, flows northward along the western coast of South America, and is swallowed up and lost in the great equatorial current of the Pacific. This is a broad current flowing westward and covering the entire s.p.a.ce between the tropics. Striking upon the eastern sh.o.r.es of Asia, this equatorial current divides, one part flowing northward along the coast of Asia, the other finding its way through the many islands, sweeping across the Indian Ocean, and flowing down the eastern sh.o.r.e of Africa on each side of Madagascar. Doubling the Cape of Good Hope, the current continues in a north-westerly direction across the Atlantic. Striking upon Cape St. Roque, this current again divides; a part flows south and a part pours into the Caribbean Sea. From the Caribbean Sea it issues as the Gulf Stream, of which I have already spoken. This Gulf Stream impinges upon the western coast of Europe, and pours partly into the North Sea and partly flows south off the western coast of Africa, completing thus the circuit of the Atlantic. The currents of the Indian and of the great Southern Oceans are as yet very imperfectly understood. Of all the ocean streams the Gulf Stream is most famous and best understood. I shall therefore use this as an ill.u.s.tration of the agency of ocean currents in conveying heat and modifying climate.

"The waters of the Caribbean Sea are heated by the tropic sun to eighty-eight degrees. From these heated waters the Gulf Stream issues salter and warmer, and of a deeper blue, than the waters of the surrounding sea. Its greatest velocity as it issues from the gulf is a little more than three miles per hour. As it flows northward its velocity diminishes, its breadth becomes greater, and its depth less. It covers thus with its warm waters a broad belt of the Atlantic Ocean, and extends its influence to the most northern part of Europe. You can judge of the amount of heat which is removed from the tropics when I tell you that the unmeasured flood of the Gulf Stream would swallow up three thousand rivers like the Mississippi. This one ocean stream is many times greater than all the rivers of the world. We feel the warmth of the Gulf Stream with every wind that blows from the sea. To this the British isles owe their mild, moist climate and perennial greenness, and by its influence a winter in Iceland, upon the Arctic circle, is no more rigorous than a winter in Montreal, twenty-one degrees nearer the equator. But what is the Gulf Stream, though it be fifty fold greater than all the rivers of the world, in comparison with the whole sum of the ocean streams? Upper currents and under currents fill the sea. They meet the explorers of the sea everywhere. The navigator drops his measuring line, and finds it swept away and drawn out by unseen currents. All these movements of the waters are in favor of the equalization of temperature. The cooler waters of the frigid and temperate zones are mingled with the heated waters of the tropics and exchanged for the equatorial waters. The transfer of heat would not be greater if broad rivers of molten lava were flowing from the equator to the poles.

"Another agency for the transfer of heat is the movement of ice, and especially of icebergs."