CHAPTER 2: CREATION.

1 1 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 65 (Max Farrand ed., 1911) (hereinafter "Farrand, Records"). 1 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 65 (Max Farrand ed., 1911) (hereinafter "Farrand, Records").2 Ibid. at 20-21. Ibid. at 20-21.3 Ibid. Ibid.4 Charles Thach, The Creation of the American Presidency, 1775-1789: A Study in Const.i.tutional History 85 (1923). Charles Thach, The Creation of the American Presidency, 1775-1789: A Study in Const.i.tutional History 85 (1923).5 1 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 66. 1 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 66.6 Ibid. at 65. Ibid. at 65.7 Ibid. Ibid.8 Ibid. at 65-66. Oddly, the notes of Rufus King of New York show Madison, rather than Pinckney or Wilson, raising the issue. King records Madison as saying that "executive powers ex vi termini, do not include the Rights of war & peace &c. but the powers shd. be confined and defined." Ibid. at 70. Ibid. at 65-66. Oddly, the notes of Rufus King of New York show Madison, rather than Pinckney or Wilson, raising the issue. King records Madison as saying that "executive powers ex vi termini, do not include the Rights of war & peace &c. but the powers shd. be confined and defined." Ibid. at 70.9 Ibid. at 64-65; see also Ibid. at 65 (comments of John Rutledge); Ibid. at 65-66 (comments of James Wilson). Ibid. at 64-65; see also Ibid. at 65 (comments of John Rutledge); Ibid. at 65-66 (comments of James Wilson).10 Ibid. at 244. Ibid. at 244.11 Ibid. Ibid.12 As James Wilson declared on June 26, the "Senate will probably be the depositary of the powers concerning" relations "to foreign nations" because of senators' longer terms in office. 1 Ibid. at 426. See also John C. Yoo, The Judicial Safeguards of Federalism, 70 Southern California Law Review 1311, 1366-74 (1997) (discussing dual role of the Senate). As James Wilson declared on June 26, the "Senate will probably be the depositary of the powers concerning" relations "to foreign nations" because of senators' longer terms in office. 1 Ibid. at 426. See also John C. Yoo, The Judicial Safeguards of Federalism, 70 Southern California Law Review 1311, 1366-74 (1997) (discussing dual role of the Senate).13 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 56-57. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 56-57.14 2 Jack Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Const.i.tution 261-62 (1996). 2 Jack Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Const.i.tution 261-62 (1996).15 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 171-72. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 171-72.16 2 Ibid. at 300-01. 2 Ibid. at 300-01.17 2 Ibid. at 299-300. 2 Ibid. at 299-300.18 2 Ibid. at 318. 2 Ibid. at 318.19 2 Ibid. at 319. 2 Ibid. at 319.20 Ibid. Ibid.21 See John Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace: The Const.i.tution and Foreign Affairs After 9/11, at 149-52 (2005). For contrary views, see Saikrishna Prakash, Unleashing the Dogs of War: What the Const.i.tution Means by "Declare War," 93 Cornell Law Review 45 (2007); and Michael Ramsey, Textualism and War Powers, 69 University of Chicago Law Review 1543 (2002). For my responses, see Robert J. Delahunty & John Yoo, Making War, 93 Cornell Law Review 123 (2007); John Yoo, War and the Const.i.tutional Text, 69 University of Chicago Law Review 1639 (2002). See John Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace: The Const.i.tution and Foreign Affairs After 9/11, at 149-52 (2005). For contrary views, see Saikrishna Prakash, Unleashing the Dogs of War: What the Const.i.tution Means by "Declare War," 93 Cornell Law Review 45 (2007); and Michael Ramsey, Textualism and War Powers, 69 University of Chicago Law Review 1543 (2002). For my responses, see Robert J. Delahunty & John Yoo, Making War, 93 Cornell Law Review 123 (2007); John Yoo, War and the Const.i.tutional Text, 69 University of Chicago Law Review 1639 (2002).22 Articles of Confederation art. IX (1777). Articles of Confederation art. IX (1777).23 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 392. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 392.24 Jack N. Rakove, Solving a Const.i.tutional Puzzle: The Treatymaking Clause as a Case Study, 1 Perspectives in American History 233, 240-41 (1984). Jack N. Rakove, Solving a Const.i.tutional Puzzle: The Treatymaking Clause as a Case Study, 1 Perspectives in American History 233, 240-41 (1984).25 See Yoo, Powers of War and Peace, supra note 21, at 182-214; and Saikrishna Prakash & Michael Ramsey, The Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, 111 Yale Law Journal 231 (2001). For a contrary view, see, e.g., Curtis A. Bradley & Martin S. Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism and Foreign Affairs, 102 Michigan Law Review 545, 637-41 (2004); Harold H. Koh, The National Security Const.i.tution: Sharing Power after the Iran-Contra Affair (1990); and Michael Glennon, Const.i.tutional Diplomacy (1990). See Yoo, Powers of War and Peace, supra note 21, at 182-214; and Saikrishna Prakash & Michael Ramsey, The Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, 111 Yale Law Journal 231 (2001). For a contrary view, see, e.g., Curtis A. Bradley & Martin S. Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism and Foreign Affairs, 102 Michigan Law Review 545, 637-41 (2004); Harold H. Koh, The National Security Const.i.tution: Sharing Power after the Iran-Contra Affair (1990); and Michael Glennon, Const.i.tutional Diplomacy (1990).26 See, e.g., James W. Ceaser, Presidential Selection: Theory and Development 43 (1979). See, e.g., James W. Ceaser, Presidential Selection: Theory and Development 43 (1979).27 Federalist No. 68, at 460-61 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 68, at 460-61 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).28 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 540. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 540.29 Federalist No. 68, at 460 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 68, at 460 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).30 1 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 29. 1 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 29.31 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 540-41. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 540-41.32 Clinton Rossiter, The American Presidency 67 (1956). Clinton Rossiter, The American Presidency 67 (1956).33 Edward S. Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787-1984, at 201 (Randall W. Bland et al. eds., 1984). Edward S. Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787-1984, at 201 (Randall W. Bland et al. eds., 1984).34 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 648. 2 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 648.35 See Forrest McDonald: The American Presidency: An Intellectual History 181 (1994). See Forrest McDonald: The American Presidency: An Intellectual History 181 (1994).36 See, e.g., Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency 1-12 (1973); and Michael Genovese, The Power of the American Presidency, 1789-2000, at 12-13 (2001). See, e.g., Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency 1-12 (1973); and Michael Genovese, The Power of the American Presidency, 1789-2000, at 12-13 (2001).37 See, e.g., Donald L. Robinson, "To the Best of My Ability": The Presidency and the Const.i.tution 87-95 (1987); and Thach, supra note 4, at 139-40. See, e.g., Donald L. Robinson, "To the Best of My Ability": The Presidency and the Const.i.tution 87-95 (1987); and Thach, supra note 4, at 139-40.38 For excellent accounts of the political events and leaders of the ratification process, see Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Const.i.tution (1986); Forrest McDonald, We the People: The Economic Origins of the Const.i.tution (1991); and Forrest McDonald, E Pluribus Unum (1979). For excellent accounts of the political events and leaders of the ratification process, see Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Const.i.tution (1986); Forrest McDonald, We the People: The Economic Origins of the Const.i.tution (1991); and Forrest McDonald, E Pluribus Unum (1979).39 See Glenn Phelps, George Washington and American Const.i.tutionalism (1994). See Glenn Phelps, George Washington and American Const.i.tutionalism (1994).40 3 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 301-02. 3 Farrand, Records, supra note 1, at 301-02.41 George Mason, Objections to the Const.i.tution (Oct. 7, 1787), reprinted in 13 Doc.u.mentary History of the Ratification of the Const.i.tution 349 (John P. Kaminski & Gaspare J. Saladino eds., 1986) (hereinafter "Doc.u.mentary History"). Mason's objections were known to have been published in at least 27 newspapers from Maine to South Carolina and served as a sounding board for numerous Federalist and Anti-Federalist essays. See Ibid. at 348. As the influential Anti-Federalist "Federal Farmer" complained before the start of the Pennsylvania ratifying convention, "[I]n this senate are lodged legislative, executive and judicial powers..." Letter III from the Federal Farmer (Oct. 10, 1787), reprinted in 14 Ibid. at 32. The Letters from the Federal Farmer were published as 40-page pamphlets for sale, rather than as articles in newspapers. Apparently thousands of copies were sold throughout the states, and they appeared in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ma.s.sachusetts before their ratifying conventions concluded. See John P. Kaminski & Gaspare J. Saladino, Editors' Note to Ibid. at 14-18. They are considered to be "one of the most significant publications of the ratification debate." Ibid. at 14. George Mason, Objections to the Const.i.tution (Oct. 7, 1787), reprinted in 13 Doc.u.mentary History of the Ratification of the Const.i.tution 349 (John P. Kaminski & Gaspare J. Saladino eds., 1986) (hereinafter "Doc.u.mentary History"). Mason's objections were known to have been published in at least 27 newspapers from Maine to South Carolina and served as a sounding board for numerous Federalist and Anti-Federalist essays. See Ibid. at 348. As the influential Anti-Federalist "Federal Farmer" complained before the start of the Pennsylvania ratifying convention, "[I]n this senate are lodged legislative, executive and judicial powers..." Letter III from the Federal Farmer (Oct. 10, 1787), reprinted in 14 Ibid. at 32. The Letters from the Federal Farmer were published as 40-page pamphlets for sale, rather than as articles in newspapers. Apparently thousands of copies were sold throughout the states, and they appeared in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ma.s.sachusetts before their ratifying conventions concluded. See John P. Kaminski & Gaspare J. Saladino, Editors' Note to Ibid. at 14-18. They are considered to be "one of the most significant publications of the ratification debate." Ibid. at 14.42 6 The Complete Anti-Federalist 21 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981). 6 The Complete Anti-Federalist 21 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981).43 3 Ibid. at 115. 3 Ibid. at 115.44 3 Ibid. at 38. 3 Ibid. at 38.45 3 Ibid. at 414. 3 Ibid. at 414.465 Ibid. at 145-46.47 3 Ibid. at 233. 3 Ibid. at 233.48 Federalist No. 23, at 147 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 23, at 147 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).49 Federalist No. 41, at 270 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 41, at 270 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).50 Federalist No. 51, at 349 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 51, at 349 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).51 Federalist No. 48, at 334 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 48, at 334 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).52 Federalist No. 71, at 482 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 71, at 482 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).53 Federalist No. 70, at 471 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 70, at 471 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).54 Federalist No. 70, at 472 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 70, at 472 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).55 Federalist No. 70, at 480 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 70, at 480 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).56 2 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 495. 2 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 495.57 Ibid. at 579. Ibid. at 579.58 9 Ibid. at 1097-98. 9 Ibid. at 1097-98.59 See generally Dougla.s.s Adair, Fame and the Founding Fathers (1974). See generally Dougla.s.s Adair, Fame and the Founding Fathers (1974).60 Federalist No. 73, at 493 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 73, at 493 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).61 McDonald, supra note 35, at 206. McDonald, supra note 35, at 206.62 Federalist No. 75, at 504 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 75, at 504 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).63 Federalist No. 73, at 494 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 73, at 494 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).64 Akhil Reed Amar, America's Const.i.tution: A Biography 184 (2005). Akhil Reed Amar, America's Const.i.tution: A Biography 184 (2005).65 Federalist No. 73, at 495 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 73, at 495 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).66 See, e.g., Michael Rappaport, 16 Wm. & Mary Bill of Rights J. 113 (2007). For similar views, see Christopher N. May, Presidential Defiance of "Unconst.i.tutional" Laws: Reviving the Royal Prerogative, 21 Hastings Const. L.Q. 865 (1994); Am. Bar a.s.s'n, Task Force on Presidential Signing Statements and the Separation of Powers Doctrine 5 (2006), available at See, e.g., Michael Rappaport, 16 Wm. & Mary Bill of Rights J. 113 (2007). For similar views, see Christopher N. May, Presidential Defiance of "Unconst.i.tutional" Laws: Reviving the Royal Prerogative, 21 Hastings Const. L.Q. 865 (1994); Am. Bar a.s.s'n, Task Force on Presidential Signing Statements and the Separation of Powers Doctrine 5 (2006), available at www.abanet.org/op/signingstatements/aba_final_statements_recommendation-report_7-24-06.pdf. Those taking a different view include Frank H. Easterbrook, Presidential Review, 40 Case Western Reserve Law Review 905 (1990); Gary Lawson & Christopher D. Moore, The Executive Power of Const.i.tutional Interpretation, 81 Iowa Law Review 1267 (1996); and Michael S. Paulsen, The Most Dangerous Branch: Executive Power to Say What the Law Is, 83 Georgetown Law Journal 217 (1994).67 See Saikrishna B. Prakash & John C. Yoo, The Origins of Judicial Review, 70 University of Chicago Law Review 887 (2003). See Saikrishna B. Prakash & John C. Yoo, The Origins of Judicial Review, 70 University of Chicago Law Review 887 (2003).68 2 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 450-51. 2 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 450-51.69 Amar, America's Const.i.tution, supra note 64, at 179. Amar, America's Const.i.tution, supra note 64, at 179.70 Federalist No. 74, at 501 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 74, at 501 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).71 On this point, see generally Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace, supra note 21, at 30-87; Prakash & Ramsey, Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, supra note 25. For criticism of this theory, see Bradley & Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism, supra note 25. On this point, see generally Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace, supra note 21, at 30-87; Prakash & Ramsey, Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, supra note 25. For criticism of this theory, see Bradley & Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism, supra note 25.72 Thomas Sch.e.l.ling, The Strategy of Conflict 18 (1960). Thomas Sch.e.l.ling, The Strategy of Conflict 18 (1960).73 Edward S. Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, supra note 33. Edward S. Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, supra note 33.74 See, e.g., Frederick Marks, Independence on Trial: Foreign Affairs and the Making of the Const.i.tution 52-95 (1986). See, e.g., Frederick Marks, Independence on Trial: Foreign Affairs and the Making of the Const.i.tution 52-95 (1986).75 Federalist No. 74, at 500 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 74, at 500 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).76 3 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 59-60. 3 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 59-60.77 Rakove, supra note 14, at 276-77. Rakove, supra note 14, at 276-77.78 Ibid. at 1282. Ibid. at 1282.79 10 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 1281. 10 Doc.u.mentary History, supra note 41, at 1281.80 See John Yoo, Globalization and the Const.i.tution, 99 Columbia Law Review 1955 (1999). See John Yoo, Globalization and the Const.i.tution, 99 Columbia Law Review 1955 (1999).

CHAPTER 3: GEORGE WASHINGTON.

1 See Glenn A. Phelps, George Washington and American Const.i.tutionalism 44-46 (1993). See Glenn A. Phelps, George Washington and American Const.i.tutionalism 44-46 (1993).2 Leonard D. White, The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History 27 (1948). Leonard D. White, The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History 27 (1948).3 Phelps, supra note 1, at 145-49. Phelps, supra note 1, at 145-49.4 The story of the Washington-Hanc.o.c.k tiff is retold in James T. Flexner, Washington and the New Nation 230 (1970). The story of the Washington-Hanc.o.c.k tiff is retold in James T. Flexner, Washington and the New Nation 230 (1970).5 See Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of George Washington 39-40 (1974). See Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of George Washington 39-40 (1974).6 Ibid. at 39. Ibid. at 39.7 30 Writings of George Washington 344 (John C. Fitzpatrick ed., 1939). 30 Writings of George Washington 344 (John C. Fitzpatrick ed., 1939).8 Ibid. at 334. For the view that Washington's move to control the machinery of the Continental Congress is more ambiguous because of the unusual change between forms of government, see Curtis Bradley & Martin Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism and Foreign Affairs, 102 Michigan Law Review 545, 637-41 (2004). Ibid. at 334. For the view that Washington's move to control the machinery of the Continental Congress is more ambiguous because of the unusual change between forms of government, see Curtis Bradley & Martin Flaherty, Executive Power Essentialism and Foreign Affairs, 102 Michigan Law Review 545, 637-41 (2004).9 Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52, 151 (1926) (quoting Daniel Webster). Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52, 151 (1926) (quoting Daniel Webster).10 10 Doc.u.mentary History of the First Federal Congress, 1789-1791, at 718-20 (Charlene Bangs Bickford et al. eds, 2004). 10 Doc.u.mentary History of the First Federal Congress, 1789-1791, at 718-20 (Charlene Bangs Bickford et al. eds, 2004).11 Ibid. at 738-40. Ibid. at 738-40.12 Ibid. at 868. Ibid. at 868.13 I have been guided through the various debates and changes in the statutory proposals by Saikrishna B. Prakash, New Light on the Decision of 1789, 91 Cornell Law Review 1021, 1029-34 (2006). The debate is also recounted prominently by David Currie, The Const.i.tution in Congress: The Federalist Period 1789-1801, at 36-41 (1997); Charles C. Thach, Jr., The Creation of the Presidency, 1775-1789, at 140-65 (1923); and James Hart, The American Presidency in Action 1789, at 155-89 (1948). I have been guided through the various debates and changes in the statutory proposals by Saikrishna B. Prakash, New Light on the Decision of 1789, 91 Cornell Law Review 1021, 1029-34 (2006). The debate is also recounted prominently by David Currie, The Const.i.tution in Congress: The Federalist Period 1789-1801, at 36-41 (1997); Charles C. Thach, Jr., The Creation of the Presidency, 1775-1789, at 140-65 (1923); and James Hart, The American Presidency in Action 1789, at 155-89 (1948).14 Some have argued that Congress's actions indicate that the Treasury Department was not even an executive department, but rather an administrative agency outside of direct presidential control. See Lawrence Lessig & Ca.s.s R. Sunstein, The President and the Administration, 94 Columbia Law Review 1, 28 (1994). Steven Calabresi and Sai Prakash have shown their arguments on this score to be off the mark. See Steven G. Calabresi & Saikrishna B. Prakash, The President's Power to Execute the Laws, 104 Yale Law Journal 541 (1994). Indeed, Madison's arguments in the House that the Treasury Department ought to be unified under one secretary accountable to the President defeats their claim. For some interesting applications of this theme to Congress and the federal courts, see Saikrishna Prakash, Removal and Tenure in Office, 92 Virginia Law Review 1779 (2006). For the claim that the Decision of 1789 is more ambiguous, see Bradley & Flaherty, supra note 8, at 656-64. Some have argued that Congress's actions indicate that the Treasury Department was not even an executive department, but rather an administrative agency outside of direct presidential control. See Lawrence Lessig & Ca.s.s R. Sunstein, The President and the Administration, 94 Columbia Law Review 1, 28 (1994). Steven Calabresi and Sai Prakash have shown their arguments on this score to be off the mark. See Steven G. Calabresi & Saikrishna B. Prakash, The President's Power to Execute the Laws, 104 Yale Law Journal 541 (1994). Indeed, Madison's arguments in the House that the Treasury Department ought to be unified under one secretary accountable to the President defeats their claim. For some interesting applications of this theme to Congress and the federal courts, see Saikrishna Prakash, Removal and Tenure in Office, 92 Virginia Law Review 1779 (2006). For the claim that the Decision of 1789 is more ambiguous, see Bradley & Flaherty, supra note 8, at 656-64.15 1 Annals of Congress 379 (Joseph Gales ed., 1789). 1 Annals of Congress 379 (Joseph Gales ed., 1789).16 Ibid. at 463, 547. Ibid. at 463, 547.17 Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (June 30, 1789), in 16 Doc.u.mentary History of the First Federal Congress, supra note 10, at 890, 893. Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (June 30, 1789), in 16 Doc.u.mentary History of the First Federal Congress, supra note 10, at 890, 893.18 Stanley M. Elkins & Eric L. McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800, at 53-54 (1993). Stanley M. Elkins & Eric L. McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800, at 53-54 (1993).19 Forrest McDonald: The American Presidency: An Intellectual History 227 (1994). Forrest McDonald: The American Presidency: An Intellectual History 227 (1994).20 George Washington to Henry Knox, Sept. 20, 1795, in 34 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 315. George Washington to Henry Knox, Sept. 20, 1795, in 34 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 315.21 Various Senators and commentators have urged such a role for the Senate over the years. See, e.g., David A. Strauss & Ca.s.s R. Sunstein, The Senate, the Const.i.tution, and the Confirmation Process, 101 Yale Law Journal 1491, 1502-12 (1992). Arguments against include John O. McGinnis, The President, the Senate, the Const.i.tution, and the Confirmation Process: A Reply to Professors Strauss and Sunstein, 71 Texas Law Review 633, 638-39 (1993). Various Senators and commentators have urged such a role for the Senate over the years. See, e.g., David A. Strauss & Ca.s.s R. Sunstein, The Senate, the Const.i.tution, and the Confirmation Process, 101 Yale Law Journal 1491, 1502-12 (1992). Arguments against include John O. McGinnis, The President, the Senate, the Const.i.tution, and the Confirmation Process: A Reply to Professors Strauss and Sunstein, 71 Texas Law Review 633, 638-39 (1993).22 Thomas Jefferson to Heads of Departments, Nov. 6, 1801, in 9 Writings of Thomas Jefferson 310-12 (Paul Leicester Ford ed., 1904). Thomas Jefferson to Heads of Departments, Nov. 6, 1801, in 9 Writings of Thomas Jefferson 310-12 (Paul Leicester Ford ed., 1904).23 McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 41. McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 41.24 See Phelps, supra note 1, at 140-41. See Phelps, supra note 1, at 140-41.25 George Washington to Baron Poellnitz, Mar. 23, 1790, in 31 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 23-24. George Washington to Baron Poellnitz, Mar. 23, 1790, in 31 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 23-24.26 I have found invaluable Forrest McDonald's a.n.a.lysis of the Hamiltonian system, and its political effects, in McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 47-88. I have found invaluable Forrest McDonald's a.n.a.lysis of the Hamiltonian system, and its political effects, in McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 47-88.27 Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 155-61. Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 155-61.28 Federalist No. 44, at 302-05 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 44, at 302-05 (James Madison) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).29 19 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 275-80 (Julian P. Boyd ed., 1974). 19 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 275-80 (Julian P. Boyd ed., 1974).30 8 The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 63-134 (Harold Syrett ed., 1965). 8 The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 63-134 (Harold Syrett ed., 1965).31 McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819). McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819).32 19 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 280. 19 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 280.33 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 16-17. 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 16-17.34 19 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 280. 19 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 280.35 Phelps, supra note 1, at 151-52. Phelps, supra note 1, at 151-52.36 Ibid. at 153-54. Ibid. at 153-54.37 See, e.g., Am. Bar a.s.s'n, Task Force on Presidential Signing Statements and the Separation of Powers Doctrine 5 (2006), available at See, e.g., Am. Bar a.s.s'n, Task Force on Presidential Signing Statements and the Separation of Powers Doctrine 5 (2006), available at www.abanet.org/op/signingstatements/aba_final_statements_recommendation-report_7-24-06.pdf.38 See generally Lessig & Sunstein, supra note 14. See generally Lessig & Sunstein, supra note 14.39 See Jerry Mashaw, Recovering American Administrative Law: Federalist Foundations, 1787-1801, 115 Yale Law Journal 1256 (2006); and White, supra note 2. See Jerry Mashaw, Recovering American Administrative Law: Federalist Foundations, 1787-1801, 115 Yale Law Journal 1256 (2006); and White, supra note 2.40 The discussion of the Whiskey Rebellion is taken from Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 461-88; McDonald, supra note 5, at 145-47; and Phelps, supra note 1, at 131-36. A sustained scholarly treatment can be found in Thomas P. Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution (1988), and a recent journalistic retelling in William Hogeland, The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged America's Newfound Sovereignty (2006). The discussion of the Whiskey Rebellion is taken from Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 461-88; McDonald, supra note 5, at 145-47; and Phelps, supra note 1, at 131-36. A sustained scholarly treatment can be found in Thomas P. Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution (1988), and a recent journalistic retelling in William Hogeland, The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged America's Newfound Sovereignty (2006).41 Proclamation of September 15, 1792, in 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 150. Proclamation of September 15, 1792, in 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 150.42 A debate among historians continues to this day about the sources of the Whiskey Rebellion. McDonald has argued that Hamilton deliberately provoked a confrontation in order to create the opportunity for a show of force by the federal government. Others have argued that the sources were primarily economic, in that the tax hit certain cla.s.ses of Western farmers particularly hard, while recent scholarship argues that the Whiskey Rebellion was the product of a number of social and political developments in the West that led to an uprising that was more popular in its roots. A debate among historians continues to this day about the sources of the Whiskey Rebellion. McDonald has argued that Hamilton deliberately provoked a confrontation in order to create the opportunity for a show of force by the federal government. Others have argued that the sources were primarily economic, in that the tax hit certain cla.s.ses of Western farmers particularly hard, while recent scholarship argues that the Whiskey Rebellion was the product of a number of social and political developments in the West that led to an uprising that was more popular in its roots.43 Stephen I. Vladeck, Emergency Power and the Militia Acts, 114 Yale Law Journal 149, 161-63 (2004). Stephen I. Vladeck, Emergency Power and the Militia Acts, 114 Yale Law Journal 149, 161-63 (2004).44 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 455 (Whiskey Rebellion); and 32 Ibid. at 386 (Neutrality Proclamation). 32 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 455 (Whiskey Rebellion); and 32 Ibid. at 386 (Neutrality Proclamation).45 See Calabresi & Prakash, supra note 14, at 659 n. 547; see also Harold J. Krent, Executive Control over Criminal Law Enforcement, 38 American University Law Review 275 (1989). See Calabresi & Prakash, supra note 14, at 659 n. 547; see also Harold J. Krent, Executive Control over Criminal Law Enforcement, 38 American University Law Review 275 (1989).46 See, e.g., David Grady Adler, The President's Pardon Power, in Thomas E. Cronin ed., Inventing the American Presidency 209 (1989). See, e.g., David Grady Adler, The President's Pardon Power, in Thomas E. Cronin ed., Inventing the American Presidency 209 (1989).47 See, e.g., Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the U.S. Const.i.tution (2d ed. 1996); Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Const.i.tution: Sharing Power after the Iran-Contra Affair (1990); and Michael J. Glennon, Const.i.tutional Diplomacy (1990). See, e.g., Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the U.S. Const.i.tution (2d ed. 1996); Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Const.i.tution: Sharing Power after the Iran-Contra Affair (1990); and Michael J. Glennon, Const.i.tutional Diplomacy (1990).48 Washington to Moultrie, Aug. 28, 1793, in 33 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 73. Washington to Moultrie, Aug. 28, 1793, in 33 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 73.49 David Currie, Rumors of War: Presidential and Congressional War Powers, 67 University of Chicago Law Review 1, 2 (2000). David Currie, Rumors of War: Presidential and Congressional War Powers, 67 University of Chicago Law Review 1, 2 (2000).50 See Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783-1802, at 92-93 (1975). See Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783-1802, at 92-93 (1975).51 Ibid. at 96. Ibid. at 96.52 1 Annals of Congress 715 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789). 1 Annals of Congress 715 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789).53 Act of Sept. 29, 1789, 1 Stat. 95. Act of Sept. 29, 1789, 1 Stat. 95.54 Kohn, supra note 50, at 97. Kohn, supra note 50, at 97.55 1 Annals of Congress 724 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789). 1 Annals of Congress 724 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789).56 Kohn, supra note 50, at 98. Kohn, supra note 50, at 98.57 Ibid. at 96. Ibid. at 96.58 Act of Apr. 30, 1790, 1 Stat. 119. Act of Apr. 30, 1790, 1 Stat. 119.59 Kohn, supra note 50, at 103. Kohn, supra note 50, at 103.60 Ibid. at 104. Ibid. at 104.61 See, e.g., George Washington to House of Representatives, Sept. 16, 1789, 1 Annals of Congress 927-28 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789). See, e.g., George Washington to House of Representatives, Sept. 16, 1789, 1 Annals of Congress 927-28 (Joseph Gale ed., 1789).62 1 Annals of Congress 1772. 1 Annals of Congress 1772.63 Kohn, supra note 50, at 115-17. Kohn, supra note 50, at 115-17.64 1 Stat. 241 (1792). 1 Stat. 241 (1792).65 Kohn, supra note 50, at 116-24. Kohn, supra note 50, at 116-24.66 Abraham Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs and Const.i.tutional Power: The Origins 119 (1976). Abraham Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs and Const.i.tutional Power: The Origins 119 (1976).67 Errors of Government Towards the Indians, Feb. 1792, in 31 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 491. Errors of Government Towards the Indians, Feb. 1792, in 31 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 491.68 See, e.g., Fort Harmar Treaty of 1789, 7 Stat. 28 (Jan. 9, 1789); and Creek Treaty of 1790, 7 Stat. 35 (Aug. 7, 1790). See, e.g., Fort Harmar Treaty of 1789, 7 Stat. 28 (Jan. 9, 1789); and Creek Treaty of 1790, 7 Stat. 35 (Aug. 7, 1790).69 Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823). Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).70 Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 55-58. Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 55-58.71 See Saikrishna Prakash & Michael Ramsey, The Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, 111 Yale Law Journal 231, 299-300 (2001). See Saikrishna Prakash & Michael Ramsey, The Executive Power over Foreign Affairs, 111 Yale Law Journal 231, 299-300 (2001).72 See Sofaer, supra note 66, at 65-78. See Sofaer, supra note 66, at 65-78.73 Prakash & Ramsey, supra note 71, at 300-02. Prakash & Ramsey, supra note 71, at 300-02.74 Thomas Jefferson, Opinion on the Powers of the Senate (Apr. 24, 1790), in 5 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 22, at 161. Thomas Jefferson, Opinion on the Powers of the Senate (Apr. 24, 1790), in 5 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 22, at 161.75 For the relevant historical details, I have relied on Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 303-73; McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 113-37; Editorial Note, Jefferson's Opinion on the Treaties with France, reprinted in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 597-602; and Letter from Alexander Hamilton to John Jay (Apr. 9, 1793), in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 297, 298 n.4. These events are also discussed in David P. Currie, The Const.i.tution in Congress: The Third Congress, 1793-1795, 63 University of Chicago Law Review 1, 4-16 (1996). For the relevant historical details, I have relied on Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 303-73; McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 113-37; Editorial Note, Jefferson's Opinion on the Treaties with France, reprinted in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 597-602; and Letter from Alexander Hamilton to John Jay (Apr. 9, 1793), in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 297, 298 n.4. These events are also discussed in David P. Currie, The Const.i.tution in Congress: The Third Congress, 1793-1795, 63 University of Chicago Law Review 1, 4-16 (1996).76 Treaty of Alliance, Feb. 6, 1778, U.S.-Fr., Treaty Series 82, art. XI, 7 Bevans 777. Treaty of Alliance, Feb. 6, 1778, U.S.-Fr., Treaty Series 82, art. XI, 7 Bevans 777.77 Treaty of Amity and Commerce, Feb. 6, 1778, U.S.-Fr., 8 Stat. 12., art. XVII. Treaty of Amity and Commerce, Feb. 6, 1778, U.S.-Fr., 8 Stat. 12., art. XVII.78 Notes on Washington's Questions on Neutrality and the Alliance with France, May 6, 1793, in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 665-66. Notes on Washington's Questions on Neutrality and the Alliance with France, May 6, 1793, in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 665-66.79 See Letter from Hamilton to Jay (Apr. 9, 1793), in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 297-98. See Letter from Hamilton to Jay (Apr. 9, 1793), in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 297-98.80 Letter from Washington to Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, and Randolph (Apr. 18, 1793), in ibid. at 326-27. Letter from Washington to Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, and Randolph (Apr. 18, 1793), in ibid. at 326-27.8181 Opinion on the Treaties with France, Apr. 28, 1793, in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 608-18.82 Letter from Hamilton & Knox to Washington, May 2, 1793, in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 367-96. Letter from Hamilton & Knox to Washington, May 2, 1793, in 14 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 367-96.83 Notes on Washington's Questions on Neutrality and the Alliance with France, reprinted in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 666. Notes on Washington's Questions on Neutrality and the Alliance with France, reprinted in 25 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 666.84 1 Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789-1897, at 156 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900). 1 Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789-1897, at 156 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900).85 Neutrality Act, 1 Stat. 381 (June 5, 1794). Neutrality Act, 1 Stat. 381 (June 5, 1794).86 See Jack N. Rakove, The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress 113-18 (1979); and Samuel F. Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution 58-69 (1957). See Jack N. Rakove, The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress 113-18 (1979); and Samuel F. Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution 58-69 (1957).87 Prakash & Ramsey, supra note 71, at 325-27. Prakash & Ramsey, supra note 71, at 325-27.88 See Pacificus No. 1, reprinted in 15 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 33-43. See Pacificus No. 1, reprinted in 15 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 30, at 33-43.89 Jefferson to Madison, June 13, 1793, 26 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 272-74; see also Jefferson to Madison, June 23, 1793, in 26 ibid. at 346. Jefferson to Madison, June 13, 1793, 26 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 29, at 272-74; see also Jefferson to Madison, June 23, 1793, in 26 ibid. at 346.90 Jefferson to Madison, July 7, 1793, in 26 ibid. at 443-44. Jefferson to Madison, July 7, 1793, in 26 ibid. at 443-44.91 See Helvidius Nos. 1-5, reprinted in 15 The Papers of James Madison 66-120 (Thomas Mason ed., 1985). See Helvidius Nos. 1-5, reprinted in 15 The Papers of James Madison 66-120 (Thomas Mason ed., 1985).92 Helvidius No. 1, in 15 ibid. at 69. Helvidius No. 1, in 15 ibid. at 69.93Ibid.94Helvidius No. 4, in 15 ibid. at 108.95See Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 362 (noting Madison's weak performance); but cf. Lance Banning, The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic 527 n.18 (1995) (arguing that Madison demolished Hamilton's arguments).96Helvidius No. 2, in 15 Papers of Madison, supra note 91, at 82.97The Washington administration attempted to prosecute violators of neutrality in the absence of a statutory crime. See Stewart Jay, Origins of Federal Common Law: Part One, 133 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1003, 1039-93 (1985). The issue was not finally resolved by the Supreme Court until 1812, in United States v. Hudson & Goodwin, 11 U.S. (7 Cranch) 32 (1812), in which the Court held that the federal government could not prosecute individuals for non-statutory common law crimes. See Gary D. Rowe, The Sound of Silence: United States v. Hudson & Goodwin, The Jeffersonian Ascendancy, and the Abolition of Federal Common Law Crimes, 101 Yale Law Journal 919 (1992).98These events are described in Jerald A. Combs, The Jay Treaty: Political Battleground of the Founding Fathers (1970); Samuel Flagg Bemis, Jay's Treaty (1923); Alexander DeConde, Entangling Alliance: Politics & Diplomacy under George Washington (1958); Bradford Perkins, The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795-1805 (1955); and more recently by Todd Estes, The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty, 109 Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 127 (2001); and Charles Ritcheson, Aftermath of Revolution: British Policy Toward the United States, 1783-1795 (1971).99Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 412; McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 140.100 Phelps, supra note 1, at 174-75. Phelps, supra note 1, at 174-75.101 Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 2-5. Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 2-5.102Ibid.103 See United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974). For critical discussion, see Akhil R. Amar, Nixon's Shadow, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1405 (1999); Michael S. Paulsen, Nixon Now: The Courts and the Presidency After Twenty-five Years, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1337 (1999). For a.n.a.lysis of the rise of executive privilege, see Mark J. Rozell, Executive Privilege: Presidential Power, Secrecy, and Accountability (2002); and Louis Fisher, The Politics of Executive Privilege (2003). See United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974). For critical discussion, see Akhil R. Amar, Nixon's Shadow, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1405 (1999); Michael S. Paulsen, Nixon Now: The Courts and the Presidency After Twenty-five Years, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1337 (1999). For a.n.a.lysis of the rise of executive privilege, see Mark J. Rozell, Executive Privilege: Presidential Power, Secrecy, and Accountability (2002); and Louis Fisher, The Politics of Executive Privilege (2003).104Abraham D. Sofaer, Executive Privilege: An Historical Note, 75 Columbia Law Review 1318 (1975).105On this point, see John Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace: The Const.i.tution and Foreign Affairs after 9/11, at 242-43 (2005).106See, e.g., Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829 (1984).

CHAPTER 4: THOMAS JEFFERSON.

1 The two magisterial works covering the Jefferson Presidency are Dumas Malone, Jefferson The President: The First Term 1801-05 (1970) (hereinafter "Malone, First Term") and Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: The Second Term 1805-09 (1974) (hereinafter "Malone, Second Term"); and Henry Adams, History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889-91) (Library of America ed., 1986). Helpful works include Joyce Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003); Jeremy D. Bailey, Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power (2007); n.o.ble E. Cunningham, Jr., The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978); Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1976); Robert M. Johnstone, Jr., Jefferson and the Presidency: Leadership in the Young Republic (1978); David N. Mayer, The Const.i.tutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (1994); Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (1986); Ralph Ketcham, The Jefferson Presidency and Const.i.tutional Beginnings, in Martin Fausold & Alan Shank eds., The Const.i.tution and the American Presidency 5-27 (1991); Gary Schmitt, Thomas Jefferson and the Presidency in Thomas E. Cronin ed., Inventing the American Presidency 326 (1989); and Gary Schmitt, Jefferson and Executive Power: Revisionism and the "Revolution of 1800," 17 Publius 7 (1987). The two magisterial works covering the Jefferson Presidency are Dumas Malone, Jefferson The President: The First Term 1801-05 (1970) (hereinafter "Malone, First Term") and Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: The Second Term 1805-09 (1974) (hereinafter "Malone, Second Term"); and Henry Adams, History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889-91) (Library of America ed., 1986). Helpful works include Joyce Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003); Jeremy D. Bailey, Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power (2007); n.o.ble E. Cunningham, Jr., The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978); Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1976); Robert M. Johnstone, Jr., Jefferson and the Presidency: Leadership in the Young Republic (1978); David N. Mayer, The Const.i.tutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (1994); Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (1986); Ralph Ketcham, The Jefferson Presidency and Const.i.tutional Beginnings, in Martin Fausold & Alan Shank eds., The Const.i.tution and the American Presidency 5-27 (1991); Gary Schmitt, Thomas Jefferson and the Presidency in Thomas E. Cronin ed., Inventing the American Presidency 326 (1989); and Gary Schmitt, Jefferson and Executive Power: Revisionism and the "Revolution of 1800," 17 Publius 7 (1987).2 First Draft of the Virginia Const.i.tution (1776), in 1 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 337, 341 (Julian P. Boyd ed., 1950). First Draft of the Virginia Const.i.tution (1776), in 1 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 337, 341 (Julian P. Boyd ed., 1950).3 Jefferson to Madison, Dec. 20, 1787, in 12 Ibid. at 442. Jefferson to Madison, Dec. 20, 1787, in 12 Ibid. at 442.4 Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 6, 1789, in 15 Ibid. at 392, 397. Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 6, 1789, in 15 Ibid. at 392, 397.5 Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 140 (Paul L. Ford ed., 1904). Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 140 (Paul L. Ford ed., 1904).6 Hamilton to Bayard, Jan. 16, 1801, in 25 The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 319-24 (Harold Syrett ed., 1965). Hamilton to Bayard, Jan. 16, 1801, in 25 The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 319-24 (Harold Syrett ed., 1965).7 Adams, supra note 1, at 354. Adams, supra note 1, at 354.8 See, e.g., Sidney M. Milkis & Michael Nelson, The American Presidency: Origins & Development, 1776-1993, at 103-04 (2d ed. 1994). See, e.g., Sidney M. Milkis & Michael Nelson, The American Presidency: Origins & Development, 1776-1993, at 103-04 (2d ed. 1994).9 See Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829, at 106 (1984); see also Bailey, supra note 1, at 5-27; Mayer, supra note 1, at 222-56; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 326-46. Bruce Ackerman traces the rise of "presidential democracy" under Jefferson to the failure of the Electoral College system in the election of 1800 and the embrace of popular majoritarianism to support Jefferson's selection. Bruce Ackerman, The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy 245-66 (2005). See Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829, at 106 (1984); see also Bailey, supra note 1, at 5-27; Mayer, supra note 1, at 222-56; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 326-46. Bruce Ackerman traces the rise of "presidential democracy" under Jefferson to the failure of the Electoral College system in the election of 1800 and the embrace of popular majoritarianism to support Jefferson's selection. Bruce Ackerman, The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy 245-66 (2005).10 See Bailey, supra note 1, at 16-20; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 341-43. See Bailey, supra note 1, at 16-20; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 341-43.11 Federalist No. 23, at 147 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961). Federalist No. 23, at 147 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).12 Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22. Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22.13 11 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 2, at 679. 11 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 2, at 679.14 McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 36. McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 36.15 Ibid. at 34-36; see also Peterson, supra note 1, at 680; Marc Landy & Sidney Milkis, Presidential Greatness 65 (2000). Ibid. at 34-36; see also Peterson, supra note 1, at 680; Marc Landy & Sidney Milkis, Presidential Greatness 65 (2000).16 Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 141. Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 141.17 Jefferson to Abigail Adams, Sept 11, 1804, in 8 Ibid. at 310-11. Jefferson to Abigail Adams, Sept 11, 1804, in 8 Ibid. at 310-11.18 Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Ibid. at 141. Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Ibid. at 141.19 Jefferson to d.i.c.kinson, Dec. 19, 1801, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 302 (Andrew A. Lips...o...b..ed., 1903-04). Jefferson to d.i.c.kinson, Dec. 19, 1801, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 302 (Andrew A. Lips...o...b..ed., 1903-04).20 Richard E. Ellis, The Jeffersonian Crisis: Courts and Politics in the Young Republic 70 (1971). Richard E. Ellis, The Jeffersonian Crisis: Courts and Politics in the Young Republic 70 (1971).21 Quoted in McDonald, supra note 1, at 81. Quoted in McDonald, supra note 1, at 81.22 Jefferson to Hay, June 20, 1807, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 59-60. Jefferson to Hay, June 20, 1807, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 59-60.23 The Barbary Pirates are usefully discussed in Abraham Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs, and Const.i.tutional Power: The Origins 208-27 (1976); Schmitt, supra note 1, at 336-37; Gerhard Casper, Separating Power: Essays on the Founding Period 45-67 (1997); and Montgomery Kosma, Our First Real War, 2 Green Bag 2d 169 (1999). The Barbary Pirates are usefully discussed in Abraham Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs, and Const.i.tutional Power: The Origins 208-27 (1976); Schmitt, supra note 1, at 336-37; Gerhard Casper, Separating Power: Essays on the Founding Period 45-67 (1997); and Montgomery Kosma, Our First Real War, 2 Green Bag 2d 169 (1999).24 The Complete Annals of Thomas Jefferson 213 (Franklin B. Sawvel ed., 1903). The Complete Annals of Thomas Jefferson 213 (Franklin B. Sawvel ed., 1903).25 Smith to Dale, May 20, 1801, in 1 Naval Doc.u.ments Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers 465 (1939). Smith to Dale, May 20, 1801, in 1 Naval Doc.u.ments Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers 465 (1939).26 Kosma, supra note 23, at 174. Kosma, supra note 23, at 174.27 President's Message, Dec. 8, 1801, in 7 Annals of Congress 11, 12 (Joseph Gale 2d ed., 1789). President's Message, Dec. 8, 1801, in 7 Annals of Congress 11, 12 (Joseph Gale 2d ed., 1789).28 Act of Feb. 6, 1802, 2 Stat 129. Act of Feb. 6, 1802, 2 Stat 129.29 The Examination No. 1, Dec. 17, 1801, in 25 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 6, at 444, 456. The Examination No. 1, Dec. 17, 1801, in 25 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 6, at 444, 456.30 See Sofaer, supra note 23, at 216-21. See Sofaer, supra note 23, at 216-21.31 See ibid. at 172-73; McDonald, supra note 1, at 135-37; and Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War, 1805-1812: England and the United States 142-44 (1961). See ibid. at 172-73; McDonald, supra note 1, at 135-37; and Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War, 1805-1812: England and the United States 142-44 (1961).32 The events surrounding the purchase are described in Robert Tucker & David Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson 87-171 (1990); Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 239-332; and McDonald, supra note 1, at 53-73. The events surrounding the purchase are described in Robert Tucker & David Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson 87-171 (1990); Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 239-332; and McDonald, supra note 1, at 53-73.33 Quoted in Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 285. Quoted in Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 285.34 Gary Lawson & Guy Seidman, The Const.i.tution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History 29 (2004). Gary Lawson & Guy Seidman, The Const.i.tution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History 29 (2004).35 Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 312. Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 312.36 Jefferson to d.i.c.kinson, Aug. 9, 1803, in 8 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 262. Jefferson to d.i.c.kinson, Aug. 9, 1803, in 8 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 262.37 Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 12, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 242. Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 12, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 242.38 Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 18, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 245; see also Jefferson to Paine, in 8 Ibid. at 245. Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 18, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 245; see also Jefferson to Paine, in 8 Ibid. at 245.39 Jefferson to Nicholas, Sept. 7, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 247. Jefferson to Nicholas, Sept. 7, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 247.40 See Mayer, supra note 1, at 253. See Mayer, supra note 1, at 253.41 Jefferson to Colvin, Sept. 20, 1810, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 279. Jefferson to Colvin, Sept. 20, 1810, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 279.42 Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22; and Schmitt, supra note 1, at 343-46. Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22; and Schmitt, supra note 1, at 343-46.43 Quoted in Edwin Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787-1984, at 18 (Randall W. Bland et al, eds., 5th ed. 1984). Quoted in Edwin Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787-1984, at 18 (Randall W. Bland et al, eds., 5th ed. 1984).44 Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States 122 (1969). Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States 122 (1969).45 See Harvey Mansfield, Thomas Jefferson, in Morton Frisch & Richard Stevens eds., American Political Thought: The Philosophic Dimension of Statesmanship 49 (1983); Landy & Milkis, supra note 15, at 41-43. See Harvey Mansfield, Thomas Jefferson, in Morton Frisch & Richard Stevens eds., American Political Thought: The Philosophic Dimension of Statesmanship 49 (1983); Landy & Milkis, supra note 15, at 41-43.46 Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 93. Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 93.47 Mayer, supra note 1, at 236-37. Mayer, supra note 1, at 236-37.48 McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 39; Mayer, supra note 1, at 238. McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 39; Mayer, supra note 1, at 238.49 See Casper, supra note 23, at 80-83. See Casper, supra note 23, at 80-83.50 Tucker & Hendrickson, supra note 32, at 14-17. Tucker & Hendrickson, supra note 32, at 14-17.51 Ibid. at 18-21. Ibid. at 18-21.52 Quoted in Ibid. at 190. Quoted in Ibid. at 190.53 Gallatin to Jefferson, Dec. 18, 1807, quoted in Malone, Second Term, supra note 1, at 482. Gallatin to Jefferson, Dec. 18, 1807, quoted in Malone, Second Term, supra note 1, at 482.54 1 Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789-1897, at 422-24 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900); and 2 Stat. 451 (Dec. 22, 1807). 1 Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789-1897, at 422-24 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900); and 2 Stat. 451 (Dec. 22, 1807).55 2 Stat. 453 (Jan. 9, 1808). 2 Stat. 453 (Jan. 9, 1808).56 2 Stat. 473 (Mar. 12, 1808). 2 Stat. 473 (Mar. 12, 1808).57 2 Stat. 499 (Apr. 25, 1808). 2 Stat. 499 (Apr. 25, 1808).58 Quoted in Leonard Levy, Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side (1989). Quoted in Leonard Levy, Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side (1989).59 Insurrection Act of 1807, ch. 39, 2 Stat. 443. Insurrection Act of 1807, ch. 39, 2 Stat. 443.60 Leonard White, Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801-29, at 451 (1951). Leonard White, Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801-29, at 451 (1951).61 Quoted in Ibid. at 461. Quoted in Ibid. at 461.62 2 Stat. 506 (Jan. 9, 1809). 2 Stat. 506 (Jan. 9, 1809).63 Levy, supra note 58, at 120. Levy, supra note 58, at 120.64 Garry Wills, James Madison 5-7 (2002). Wills's opinion is not universally shared, of course. For more positive biographies of Madison, see Irving Brant, James Madison: The President, 1809-1812 (1956); Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (1971); Drew N. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (1991); Jack N. Rakove, James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic (1990); Robert Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (1990); and Robert Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father (1987). For an interesting perspective on whether Madison's interest in political theory interfered with his ability to succeed as a president, see David J. Siemers, Theories About Theory: Theory-Based Claims about Presidential Performance from the Case of James Madison, 38 Pres. Studies Q. 78 (2007). Garry Wills, James Madison 5-7 (2002). Wills's opinion is not universally shared, of course. For more positive biographies of Madison, see Irving Brant, James Madison: The President, 1809-1812 (1956); Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (1971); Drew N. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (1991); Jack N. Rakove, James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic (1990); Robert Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (1990); and Robert Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father (1987). For an interesting perspective on whether Madison's interest in political theory interfered with his ability to succeed as a president, see David J. Siemers, Theories About Theory: Theory-Based Claims about Presidential Performance from the Case of James Madison, 38 Pres. Studies Q. 78 (2007).65 Perkins, supra note 31, at 223-60. Perkins, supra note 31, at 223-60.66 Rakove, supra note 64, at 151. Rakove, supra note 64, at 151.67 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to the Present 60-61 (1994). Walter LaFeber, The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to the Present 60-61 (1994).68 Third Annual Message, Nov. 5, 1811, in 1 Papers of the Presidents, supra note 54, at 491, 494 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900). Third Annual Message, Nov. 5, 1811, in 1 Papers of the Presidents, supra note 54, at 491, 494 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900).69 Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict 29-37 (1990); LaFeber, supra note 67, at 63. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict 29-37 (1990); LaFeber, supra note 67, at 63.70 Hickey, supra note 69, at 72-99, 126-58, 182-254. Hickey, supra note 69, at 72-99, 126-58, 182-254.71 J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783-1830 (1983), provides a good historical account of the war. J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783-1830 (1983), provides a good historical account of the war.72 Rutland, Presidency of Madison, supra note 64, at 110. Rutland, Presidency of Madison, supra note 64, at 110.

CHAPTER 5: ANDREW JACKSON.

1 I have drawn on the wealth of Jackson histories in writing this article. Jackson's larger than life personality has made him the subject of several excellent works. Our generation's leading Jackson biographer, Robert V. Remini, provides great detail on Jackson's life in three volumes. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson (1977-84) (hereinafter "Remini, Jackson"). Other helpful works include Gerard N. Magliocca, Andrew Jackson and the Const.i.tution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes (2007); H. W. Brands, Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2006); Sean Wilentz, Andrew Jackson (2005); and Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1993). Our leading history of the Jacksonian period is Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815-1848 (2007). Older works, such as Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (1945), are less helpful in portraying Jackson as a proto-FDR and Jacksonian Democracy as a precursor for the New Deal. I have drawn on the wealth of Jackson histories in writing this article. Jackson's larger than life personality has made him the subject of several excellent works. Our generation's leading Jackson biographer, Robert V. Remini, provides great detail on Jackson's life in three volumes. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson (1977-84) (hereinafter "Remini, Jackson"). Other helpful works include Gerard N. Magliocca, Andrew Jackson and the Const.i.tution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes (2007); H. W. Brands, Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2006); Sean Wilentz, Andrew Jackson (2005); and Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1993). Our leading history of the Jacksonian period is Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815-1848 (2007). Older works, such as Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (1945), are less helpful in portraying Jackson as a proto-FDR and Jacksonian Democracy as a precursor for the New Deal.2 Andrew Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress (Dec. 8, 1829), in 2 Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, at 448 (James Richardson ed., 1896) (hereinafter "Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress") (emphasis in original). Andrew Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress (Dec. 8, 1829), in 2 Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, at 448 (James Richardson ed., 1896) (hereinafter "Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress") (emphasis in original).3 Ibid. at 447. Ibid. at 447.4 Ibid. Ibid.5 See Robert V. Remini, The Const.i.tution and the Presidencies: The Jackson Era, in the Const.i.tution and the American Presidency 29 (Martin L. Fausold & Alan Shank eds., 1991). See Robert V. Remini, The Const.i.tution and the Presidencies: The Jackson Era, in the Const.i.tution and the American Presidency 29 (Martin L. Fausold & Alan Shank eds., 1991).6 See ibid. at 35. See ibid. at 35.7 1 Remini, Jackson, supra note 1, at 305. 1 Remini, Jackson, supra note 1, at 305.8 Ibid. at 305-07. Ibid. at 305-07.9 Ibid. at 347. Ibid. at 347.10 Ibid. Ibid.11 Ibid. at 348-49. Ibid. at 348-49.12 Ibid. at 349. Ibid. at 349.13 Ibid. at 351-64. Ibid. at 351-64.14 Ibid. at 367. Ibid. at 367.15 Ibid. at 367-68. Ibid. at 367-68.16 Ibid. at 371-74. Ibid. at 371-74.17 Ibid. at 373. Ibid. at 373.18 Ibid. at 374. Ibid. at 374.19 Ibid. Ibid.20 3 Remini, Jackson, supra note 1, at 352. 3 Remini, Jackson, supra note 1, at 352.21 Ibid. at 354-55. Ibid. at 354-55.22 Ibid. at 359-60. Ibid. at 359-60.23 Ibid. Ibid.24 The admission of Texas itself would mark an expansion of executive power. Initially, under President John Tyler, the Senate rejected a treaty annexing Texas by a vote of 35-16 on June 8, 1844. After James Polk defeated Henry Clay in the presidential election that November, Congress enacted a simple statute approving the annexation and admitting Texas as a state by a vote of 120-98 in the House and 27-25 in the Senate. President Tyler signed the law on March 1, 1845, just before Polk was inaugurated. See Vasan Kesavan & Michael Stokes Paulsen, Let's Mess With Texas, 82 Texas Law Review 1587, 1592-93 (2004). The admission of Texas itself would mark an expansion of executive power. Initially, under President John Tyler, the Senate rejected a treaty annexing Texas by a vote of 35-16 on June 8, 1844. After James Polk defeated Henry Clay in the presidential election that November, Congress enacted a simple statute approving the annexation and admitting Texas as a state by a vote of 120-98 in the House and 27-25 in the Senate. President Tyler signed the law on March 1, 1845, just before Polk was inaugurated. See Vasan Kesavan & Michael Stokes Paulsen, Let's Mess With Texas, 82 Texas Law Review 1587, 1592-93 (2004).25 See Howe, supra note 1, at 342-57. See Howe, supra note 1, at 342-57.26 Magliocca, supra note 1, at 14-15. Magliocca, supra note 1, at 14-15.27 Ibid. at 346. Ibid. at 346.28 Howe, supra note 1, at 347. Howe, supra note 1, at 347.29 Ibid. at 14-15, 22-29. Ibid. at 14-15, 22-29.30 Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress, supra note 2, at 457-58. Article IV, Section 3 of the United States Const.i.tution states that "New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State...without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress." Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress, supra note 2, at 457-58. Article IV, Section 3 of the United States Const.i.tution states that "New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State...without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress."31 Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress, supra note 2, at 458. Jackson, First Annual Message to Congress, supra note 2, at 458.32 Ibid. Ibid.33 See Howe, supra note 1, at 348. See Howe, supra note 1, at 348.34 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831). Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831).35 Howe, supra note 1, at 347. Howe, supra note 1, at 347.36 Ibid. at 352; Act of May 28, 1830, ch. 148, 4 Stat. 411, 21st Cong. (1st Sess. 1830). Ibid. at 352; Act of May 28, 1830, ch. 148, 4 Stat. 411, 21st Cong. (1st Sess. 1830).37 Cherokee Nation, 30 U.S. 1 (1831). Cherokee Nation, 30 U.S. 1 (1831).38 Magliocca, supra note 1, at 36. Magliocca, supra note 1, at 36.39 Cherokee Nation, 30 U.S. at 17. Cherokee Nation, 30 U.S. at 17.40 Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515, 561 (1832). Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515, 561 (1832).41 Ibid. at 559. For an insightful discussion of Worcester, see Philip P. Frickey, Marshalling Past and Present: Colonialism, Const.i.tutionalism, and Interpretation in Federal Indian Law, 107 Harvard Law Review 381 (1993). Ibid. at 559. For an insightful discussion of Worcester, see Philip P. Frickey, Marshalling Past and Present: Colonialism, Const.i.tutionalism, and Interpretation in Federal Indian Law, 107 Harvard Law Review 381 (1993).42 Cole, supra note 1, at 114. Cole, supra note 1, at 114.43 Howe, supra note 1, at 412. Howe, supra note 1, at 412.44 Ibid. Ibid.45 Ibid. Ibid.46 Ibid. Ibid.47 Ibid. at 412-13. Ibid. at 412-13.48 Ibid. at 415. Ibid. at 415.49 Ibid. at 416. Ibid. at 416.50 For the claim that Jackson's removal policy amounted to genocide, see Michael P. Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (1975). For the claim that Jackson's removal policy amounted to genocide, see Michael P. Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (1975).51 Howe, supra note 1, at 420. Howe, supra note 1, at 420.52 Cole, supra note 1, at 34. Cole, supra note 1, at 34.53 2 Remini, Jackson, supra note 1, at 62, 161. 2 Remini,