28 Rev. Code Md., 1878, Art. 72, sec. 73, 78, pp. 800-801. Rev. Code Md., 1878, Art. 72, sec. 73, 78, pp. 800-801.

29 This is the famous phrase used by J. Willard Hurst, in This is the famous phrase used by J. Willard Hurst, in Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth Century United States Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth Century United States (1956), as the t.i.tle of chapter 1, describing the main thrust of the law in the first half of the nineteenth century. (1956), as the t.i.tle of chapter 1, describing the main thrust of the law in the first half of the nineteenth century.

30 Stats. Ohio 1841, chaps. 12, 23, 53, 61. Stats. Ohio 1841, chaps. 12, 23, 53, 61.

31 Laws Ma.s.s. 1855, chap. 121, pp. 567-68. Laws Ma.s.s. 1855, chap. 121, pp. 567-68.

32 These examples are taken from: These examples are taken from: City Charter of the City of Oakland, Cal., also General Munic.i.p.al Ordinances of said City City Charter of the City of Oakland, Cal., also General Munic.i.p.al Ordinances of said City (1898). (1898).

33 Frederick H. Wines, Frederick H. Wines, Report on the Defective, Dependent Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Cla.s.ses of the Population of the United States, as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880) and Delinquent Cla.s.ses of the Population of the United States, as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880) (1888), pp. 504, 508. Regulatory offenses do not appear as such in this report; they are, no doubt, hidden under the headings "violating city ordinance" (669 prisoners) and "offense not stated" (3,409). (1888), pp. 504, 508. Regulatory offenses do not appear as such in this report; they are, no doubt, hidden under the headings "violating city ordinance" (669 prisoners) and "offense not stated" (3,409).

34 Code Iowa 1873, t.i.tle 24, secs. 4055-62, pp. 633-34. Code Iowa 1873, t.i.tle 24, secs. 4055-62, pp. 633-34.

35 23 U.S. Stats. 31 (act of May 29, 1884). 23 U.S. Stats. 31 (act of May 29, 1884).

36 Laws Mich. 1889, p. 331. Laws Mich. 1889, p. 331.

37 Laws No. Car. 1889, chap. 374, p. 372. Laws No. Car. 1889, chap. 374, p. 372.

38 Cong. Rec. 20:1457 (50th Cong., 2d Sess., Feb. 4, 1889). Cong. Rec. 20:1457 (50th Cong., 2d Sess., Feb. 4, 1889).

39 26 Stats. 209 (act of July 2, 1890); for background, see William Letwin, 26 Stats. 209 (act of July 2, 1890); for background, see William Letwin, Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Sherman Ant.i.trust Act Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Sherman Ant.i.trust Act (1965). (1965).

40 On the early administration of the law, see Letwin, On the early administration of the law, see Letwin, Law and Economic Policy Law and Economic Policy, pp. 100-137.

41 United States v. Nelson, 52 Fed. 646 (D.C. Minn., 1892); U.S. v. Patter-son, 55 Fed. 605, 59 Fed. 280 (C.C. Ma.s.s., 1893). United States v. Nelson, 52 Fed. 646 (D.C. Minn., 1892); U.S. v. Patter-son, 55 Fed. 605, 59 Fed. 280 (C.C. Ma.s.s., 1893).

42 156 U.S. 2 (1895). 156 U.S. 2 (1895).

43 The case was United States v. Debs, 64 Fed. 724 (C.C.N.D. Ill., 1894). The case was United States v. Debs, 64 Fed. 724 (C.C.N.D. Ill., 1894).

44 Joel P. Bishop, Joel P. Bishop, Commentaries on the Criminal Law Commentaries on the Criminal Law (3d ed., 1865), Vol. 1, p. 502. (3d ed., 1865), Vol. 1, p. 502.

45 Laws Illinois, 1891, pp. 212-13. The company-store law applied to any "scheme for the furnishing of supplies, tools, clothing, provisions, or groceries" to employees. Laws Illinois, 1891, pp. 212-13. The company-store law applied to any "scheme for the furnishing of supplies, tools, clothing, provisions, or groceries" to employees.

46 Laws Kans. 1893, chap. 187. Laws Kans. 1893, chap. 187.

47 Commonwealth v. Wentworth, 118 Ma.s.s. 441 (1875). Commonwealth v. Wentworth, 118 Ma.s.s. 441 (1875).

48 Joel P. Bishop, Joel P. Bishop, Commentaries on the Criminal Law Commentaries on the Criminal Law (2d ed., 1858), p. 373. (2d ed., 1858), p. 373.

49 Code of Virginia, 1849, t.i.tle 25, chap. 86, sec. 16, 17, p. 399. Code of Virginia, 1849, t.i.tle 25, chap. 86, sec. 16, 17, p. 399.

50 Ashbrook v. Commonwealth, 64 Ky. (1 Bush) 139 (1866). Ashbrook v. Commonwealth, 64 Ky. (1 Bush) 139 (1866).

51 See, for example, Del. Const. 1897, Art. 12, establishing a state board of health, and local boards of health. See also Barbara G. Rosenkrantz, See, for example, Del. Const. 1897, Art. 12, establishing a state board of health, and local boards of health. See also Barbara G. Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Ma.s.sachusetts, 1842-1936 Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Ma.s.sachusetts, 1842-1936 (1972). (1972).

52 Laws N.J. 1895, p. 262. Laws N.J. 1895, p. 262.

53 Laws N.J. 1895, pp. 279, 473. Laws N.J. 1895, pp. 279, 473.

54 On this issue, see Arnold Paul, On this issue, see Arnold Paul, Conservative Crisis and the Rule of Law: Att.i.tudes of Bar and Bench Conservative Crisis and the Rule of Law: Att.i.tudes of Bar and Bench, 1887-1895 1887-1895 (1960). (1960).

55 In re Jacobs, 98 N.Y. 98 (1885). In re Jacobs, 98 N.Y. 98 (1885).

56 Johnson v. Goodyear Mining Co., 127 Cal. 4, 59 Pac. 304 ( 1899). Johnson v. Goodyear Mining Co., 127 Cal. 4, 59 Pac. 304 ( 1899).

57 Laws Ill. 1893, p. 99. Laws Ill. 1893, p. 99.

58 Ritchie v. People, 155 Ill. 98, 40 N.E. 454 (1895). Ritchie v. People, 155 Ill. 98, 40 N.E. 454 (1895).

59 N.J. Rev. Stats. 1874, p. 749. N.J. Rev. Stats. 1874, p. 749.

60 Neb. Compiled Stats. 1885, pp. 537, 538. Neb. Compiled Stats. 1885, pp. 537, 538.

61 N.H. Rev. Stats. 1851, chap. 127, pp. 240-41. N.H. Rev. Stats. 1851, chap. 127, pp. 240-41.

62 Laws N.J. 1884, p. 221. Laws N.J. 1884, p. 221.

63 Neb. General Stats., 1873, chap. 11, sec. 83, p. 738. Neb. General Stats., 1873, chap. 11, sec. 83, p. 738.

64 Rev. Stats. Wyo. 1899, pp. 599-603. Rev. Stats. Wyo. 1899, pp. 599-603.

CHAPTER 6. MORALS, MORALITY, AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE.

1 Ohio Stats. 1841 (act of Feb. 17, 1831). Ohio Stats. 1841 (act of Feb. 17, 1831).

2 Lawrence M. Friedman, Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law A History of American Law (2d ed., 1985), p. 585. (2d ed., 1985), p. 585.

3 Rev. Stats. Maine, 1847, pp. 685-86. Rev. Stats. Maine, 1847, pp. 685-86.

4 Rev. Stats. Ohio, 1890, sec. 7038-1, p. 1734. Rev. Stats. Ohio, 1890, sec. 7038-1, p. 1734.

5 Ill. Code 1833, p. 199. As we will see, these references to "the public" were significant. Ill. Code 1833, p. 199. As we will see, these references to "the public" were significant.

6 On this point, see Hendrik Hartog, "The Public Law of a County Court: Judicial Government in Eighteenth-Century Ma.s.sachusetts," On this point, see Hendrik Hartog, "The Public Law of a County Court: Judicial Government in Eighteenth-Century Ma.s.sachusetts," American Journal of Legal History American Journal of Legal History 20:282, 299-308 (1976). 20:282, 299-308 (1976).

7 Linda Kealey, "Patterns of Punishment: Ma.s.sachusetts in the Eighteenth Century," Linda Kealey, "Patterns of Punishment: Ma.s.sachusetts in the Eighteenth Century," American Journal of Legal History American Journal of Legal History 30:163, 169 (1986). In Plymouth, however, a number of women were fined for fornication in the same period; see, for example, David T. Konig, ed., 30:163, 169 (1986). In Plymouth, however, a number of women were fined for fornication in the same period; see, for example, David T. Konig, ed., Plymouth Court Records 1686-1859 Plymouth Court Records 1686-1859, Vol. 4, General Sessions of the Peace General Sessions of the Peace, 1782-1827 (1979), p. 37 (Rebecca Keen and Martha Keen, both fined twelve shillings for fornication in 1786.) 8 Edward M. Steel, "Criminality in Jeffersonian America-A Sample," Edward M. Steel, "Criminality in Jeffersonian America-A Sample," Crime and Delinquency Crime and Delinquency (1983), p. 154. (1983), p. 154.

9 David J. Bodenhamer, David J. Bodenhamer, The Pursuit of Justice: Crime and Law in Antebellum Indiana The Pursuit of Justice: Crime and Law in Antebellum Indiana (1986), p. 140. (1986), p. 140.

10 Quoted in Stephen Nissenbaum, Quoted in Stephen Nissenbaum, s.e.x, Diet and Debility in Jacksonian America: Sylvester Graham and Health Reform s.e.x, Diet and Debility in Jacksonian America: Sylvester Graham and Health Reform (1980), p. 113. (1980), p. 113.

11 Charles E. Rosenberg, "s.e.xuality, Cla.s.s and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," Charles E. Rosenberg, "s.e.xuality, Cla.s.s and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly American Quarterly 25:131 (1973). 25:131 (1973).

12 See Lawrence M. Friedman, See Lawrence M. Friedman, The Republic of Choice: Law, Authority and Culture The Republic of Choice: Law, Authority and Culture (1990), p. 35. Needless to say, the notions in the text apply mostly to men; women's self-control was another matter. On this point, see chapter 9. (1990), p. 35. Needless to say, the notions in the text apply mostly to men; women's self-control was another matter. On this point, see chapter 9.

13 Rosenberg, "s.e.xuality, Cla.s.s and Role," p. 140. Rosenberg, "s.e.xuality, Cla.s.s and Role," p. 140.

14 Cal. Penal Code, 1872, sec. 266a, for example. Cal. Penal Code, 1872, sec. 266a, for example.

15 Quoted in Allan Keller, Quoted in Allan Keller, Scandalous Lady Scandalous Lady (1981), p. 178. (1981), p. 178.

16 Rev. Stats. Mich. 1846, chap. 158, sec. 6, p. 681. Rev. Stats. Mich. 1846, chap. 158, sec. 6, p. 681.

17 Collins v. State, 14 Ala. 608 (1848). Collins v. State, 14 Ala. 608 (1848).

18 On this point, see Peter C. Hoffer and N. E. H. Hull, On this point, see Peter C. Hoffer and N. E. H. Hull, Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England, 1558-1803 1558-1803 (1984), pp. 50-53. (1984), pp. 50-53.

19 Edwin R. A. Seligman, ed., Edwin R. A. Seligman, ed., The Social Evil: With Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York The Social Evil: With Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (2d ed., 1912), pp. 124-25. (2d ed., 1912), pp. 124-25.

20 Rev. Stats. Mich. 1846, chap. 158, sec. 13, p. 682. Rev. Stats. Mich. 1846, chap. 158, sec. 13, p. 682.

21 Anthony Comstock, Anthony Comstock, Traps for the Young Traps for the Young (ed., Robert Bremner, 1967), p. 240. The book was originally published in 1883. (ed., Robert Bremner, 1967), p. 240. The book was originally published in 1883.

22 Commonwealth v. Tarbox, 55 Ma.s.s. (1 Cush.) 66 (1848). Commonwealth v. Tarbox, 55 Ma.s.s. (1 Cush.) 66 (1848).

23 Quoted in Philip D. Jordan, Quoted in Philip D. Jordan, Frontier Law and Order Frontier Law and Order (1970), p. 46. (1970), p. 46.

24 Idaho Code 1887, sec. 6850, p. 738. Idaho Code 1887, sec. 6850, p. 738.

25 Code Ill. 1833, p. 199. Code Ill. 1833, p. 199.

26 Jordan, Jordan, Frontier Law and Order Frontier Law and Order, pp. 55-57.

27 Henry Chafetz, Henry Chafetz, Play the Devil: A History of Gambling in the United States from 1492 to 1955 Play the Devil: A History of Gambling in the United States from 1492 to 1955 (1960), p. 228. (1960), p. 228.

28 James D. McCabe, Jr., James D. McCabe, Jr., Lights and Shadows of New York Life; or the Sights and Sensations of the Great City Lights and Shadows of New York Life; or the Sights and Sensations of the Great City (1872; reprint ed., 1970), p. 715. (1872; reprint ed., 1970), p. 715.

29 Chafetz, Chafetz, Play the Devil Play the Devil, p. 228.

30 McCabe, McCabe, Lights and Shadows Lights and Shadows, pp. 715, 716, 730.

31 Jordan, Jordan, Frontier Law and Order Frontier Law and Order, pp. 40-42.

32 Proceedings and Debates of the Convention of 1821 Proceedings and Debates of the Convention of 1821, a.s.sembled for the purpose of amending the Const.i.tution of the State of New York a.s.sembled for the purpose of amending the Const.i.tution of the State of New York (Nathaniel H. Carter and William L. Stone, reporters) (1821), pp. 569-70. (Nathaniel H. Carter and William L. Stone, reporters) (1821), pp. 569-70.

33 Quoted in Joseph Gusfield's important book on the temperance movement, Quoted in Joseph Gusfield's important book on the temperance movement, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and and the American the American Temperance Temperance Movement Movement (1963), p. 43. (1963), p. 43.

34 Ibid., p. 51. Ibid., p. 51.

35 Public Laws Me. 1851, chap. 211, p. 210. This complex act did allow cities and towns to appoint a "suitable person" to sell liquor "for medicinal and mechanical purposes." Public Laws Me. 1851, chap. 211, p. 210. This complex act did allow cities and towns to appoint a "suitable person" to sell liquor "for medicinal and mechanical purposes."

36 See David J. Pivar, See David J. Pivar, Purity Crusade Purity Crusade: s.e.xual s.e.xual Morality Morality and Social and Social Control, 1868-1900 Control, 1868-1900 (1973); on legal aspects of the late nineteenth-century crusade against vice, see Lawrence M. Friedman, "History, Social Policy, and Criminal Justice," in David J. Rothman and Stanton Wheeler, eds., (1973); on legal aspects of the late nineteenth-century crusade against vice, see Lawrence M. Friedman, "History, Social Policy, and Criminal Justice," in David J. Rothman and Stanton Wheeler, eds., Social Social History History and Social and Social Policy Policy (1981). (1981).

37 Paul S. Boyer, Paul S. Boyer, Purity in Print: The Vice-Society Movement and Book Censorship in Purity in Print: The Vice-Society Movement and Book Censorship in America America (1968), p. 7. (1968), p. 7.

38 John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History Intimate Matters: A History of s.e.xuality in America of s.e.xuality in America (1988), p. 159. (1988), p. 159.

39 17 Stats. 598 (act of March 3, 1873). On the criminalization of abortion, see chapter 10, below. 17 Stats. 598 (act of March 3, 1873). On the criminalization of abortion, see chapter 10, below.

40 Hill's Ann. Laws Oregon, 1887, Vol. 1, p. 949; Laws Ohio 1885, p. 184, pa.s.sed April 30, 1885. Hill's Ann. Laws Oregon, 1887, Vol. 1, p. 949; Laws Ohio 1885, p. 184, pa.s.sed April 30, 1885.

41 Laws Cal. 1889, chap. 191, p. 223; Laws Cal. 1897, chap. 139, p. 201. Laws Cal. 1889, chap. 191, p. 223; Laws Cal. 1897, chap. 139, p. 201.

42 McCabe, McCabe, Lights and Shadows Lights and Shadows, p. 727.

43 John S. Ezell, John S. Ezell, Fortune's Merry Wheel: The Lottery in America Fortune's Merry Wheel: The Lottery in America (1960); the law was 28 Stats. 963, chap. 191 (act of March 2, 1895). The Supreme Court upheld the statute in the Lottery Case, 188 U.S. 321 (1903), against attack on various const.i.tutional grounds. (1960); the law was 28 Stats. 963, chap. 191 (act of March 2, 1895). The Supreme Court upheld the statute in the Lottery Case, 188 U.S. 321 (1903), against attack on various const.i.tutional grounds.

44 Frederick H. Wines, Frederick H. Wines, Report on the Defective, Dependent Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Cla.s.ses of the Population of the United States, as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, and Delinquent Cla.s.ses of the Population of the United States, as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880) 1880) (1888), p. 506. (1888), p. 506.

45 The const.i.tution also prohibited "Lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets" [sec. 3). The Kansas legislature pa.s.sed a drastic law to carry the const.i.tutional provision into effect, Laws Kans. 1881, chap. 128, p. 233. The const.i.tution also prohibited "Lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets" [sec. 3). The Kansas legislature pa.s.sed a drastic law to carry the const.i.tutional provision into effect, Laws Kans. 1881, chap. 128, p. 233.

46 See Delaware Const. 1897, Art. 13 (local county option on prohibiton); South Dakota Const. 1889, Art. 24 (prohibition); an amendment to the Rhode Island const.i.tution of 1842, Art. 5, adopted in 1886, prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. See Delaware Const. 1897, Art. 13 (local county option on prohibiton); South Dakota Const. 1889, Art. 24 (prohibition); an amendment to the Rhode Island const.i.tution of 1842, Art. 5, adopted in 1886, prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors.

47 Minn. Stats. 1894, sees. 1999, 2002, 2006, 2008. Minn. Stats. 1894, sees. 1999, 2002, 2006, 2008.

48 See Ga. Laws 1884-85, p. 121 (Sept. 18, 1885). (One-tenth of voters in any county can pet.i.tion for an election to determine whether or not the sale of intoxicating liquor should be banned.) Kentucky and Florida were also local option states. See Ga. Laws 1884-85, p. 121 (Sept. 18, 1885). (One-tenth of voters in any county can pet.i.tion for an election to determine whether or not the sale of intoxicating liquor should be banned.) Kentucky and Florida were also local option states.

49 Laws Miss. 1872, chaps. 108, 109, 111, 112, 114. Laws Miss. 1872, chaps. 108, 109, 111, 112, 114.

50 Ma.s.s. Laws 1880, chap. 239. Ma.s.s. Laws 1880, chap. 239.

51 Gen'l. Laws Tex., 1887, chap. 79, p. 58. Gen'l. Laws Tex., 1887, chap. 79, p. 58.

52 On the history of drug laws, see Troy Duster, On the history of drug laws, see Troy Duster, The Legislation of Morality The Legislation of Morality (1970); David F. Musto, (1970); David F. Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control (1973). (1973).

53 Oakland Tribune, Oakland Tribune, July 2, 1883, p. 3. July 2, 1883, p. 3.

54 Idaho Code, 1887, sees. 6830, 6832, pp. 736-37. A Missouri law of 1887 outlawed "opium dens"; the statute also covered "hasheesh." Laws. Mo. 1887, p. 175. Idaho Code, 1887, sees. 6830, 6832, pp. 736-37. A Missouri law of 1887 outlawed "opium dens"; the statute also covered "hasheesh." Laws. Mo. 1887, p. 175.

55 Ord. City of Oakland no. 1214, Oct. 30, 1890, Ord. City of Oakland no. 1214, Oct. 30, 1890, City Charter and General Munic.i.p.al Ordinances City Charter and General Munic.i.p.al Ordinances, city of Oakland, 1898, p. 230. In 1887, the Supreme Court of California struck down a Stockton ordinance (In re sic, 73 Cal. 149, 14 Pac 405, [1887]) aimed at opium dens. The court felt that the ordinance conflicted with (general) state law. The Oakland ordinance on the same subject, apparently, was never challenged.

56 Laws Ill. 1897, p. 138. Laws Ill. 1897, p. 138.

57 Joseph Gusfield put this idea forward, with regard to temperance and Prohibition, in "Moral Pa.s.sage: The Symbolic Process of Public Designations of Deviance," Joseph Gusfield put this idea forward, with regard to temperance and Prohibition, in "Moral Pa.s.sage: The Symbolic Process of Public Designations of Deviance," Social Problems Social Problems 15:175 (1967); and in 15:175 (1967); and in Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (1963). (1963).

58 Friedman, "History, Social Policy, and Criminal Justice," pp. 203, 231. Friedman, "History, Social Policy, and Criminal Justice," pp. 203, 231.

59 These figures are from the annual reports of the Secretary of State of Ohio. I am indebted to Steve Johnson for the reference. These figures are from the annual reports of the Secretary of State of Ohio. I am indebted to Steve Johnson for the reference.

60 National Police Gazette National Police Gazette, Feb. 21, 1885, p. 7.