The results of the investigations made regarding the areal relations of the solid portions of our planet are as follows: in the most ancient times, during the silurian and devonian transition epochs, and in the secondary formations, including the trias, the continental portions of the earth were limited to insular groups covered with vegetation; these islands at a subsequent period became united, giving rise to numerous lakes and deeply-indented bays; and finally, when the chains of the Pyrenees, Apennines, and Carpathian Mountains were elevated about the period of the more ancient tertiary formations, large continents appeared, having almost their present p 287 size.*

[footnote] *[These movements, described in so few words, were doubtless going on for many thousands and tens of thousands of revolutions of our planet. They were accompanied, also, by vast but slow changes of other kinds. The expansive force employed in lifting up, by mighty movements, the northern portion of the continent of Asia, found partial vent; and from partial subsqueous fissures there were poured out the tabular ma.s.ses of basalt occurring in Central India, while an extensive area of depression in the Indian Ocean, marked by the coral islands of the Laccadives, the Maldives, the great Chagos Bank, and some others, were in the course of depression by a counteracting movement. -- Ansted's 'Ancient World', p. 346, etc.] -- Tr.

In the silurian epoch, as well as in that in which the Cycadeae flourished in such abundance, and gigantic saurians were living, the dry land, from pole to pole, was probably less than it now is in the South Pacific and the Indian Ocean. We shall see, in a subsequent part of this work, how this preponderating quant.i.ty of water, combined with other causes, must have contributed to raise the temperature and induce a greater uniformity of climate. Here we would only remark in considering the gradual extension of the dry land, that, shortly before the 'disturbances' which at longer or shorter intervals caused the sudden destruction of so great a number of colossal vertebrata in the 'diluvial period', some parts of the present continental ma.s.ses must have been completely separated from one another.

There is a great similarity in South America and Australia between still living and extinct species of animals. In New Holland, fossil remains of the kangaroo have been found, and in New Zealand the semi-foxxilized bones of an enormous bird, resembling the ostrich, the dinornis of Owen,* which is nearly allied to the present spteryx, and but little so to the recently extinct dronte (dodo) of the island of Rodriguez.

[[footnote] *[See 'American Journal of Science', vol. xiv., p. 187; and 'Medals of Creation', vol. ii., p. 817; 'Trans. Zoolog. Society of London', vol. ii; 'Wonders of Geology', vol. i., p. 129.] -- Tr.

The form of the continental portions of the earth may, perhaps, in a great measure, owe their elevation above the surrounding level of the water to the eruption of quartzose porphyry, which overthrew with violence the first great vegetation from which the matrial of our present coal measures was formed. The portions of the earth's surface which we term plains are nothing more than the broad summits of hills and mountains whose bases rest on the bottom of the ocean. Every plain is, therefore, when considered according to its submarine relations, an 'elevated plateau', whose inequalities have been covered over by horizontal deposition of new sedimentary formations and by the acc.u.mulation of alluvium.

p 288 Among the general subjects of contemplation appertaining to a work of this nature, a prominent place must be given, first, in the consideration of the 'quant.i.ty' of the land raised above the level of the sea, and next, to the individual configuration of each part, either in relation to horizontal extension (relations of form) or to vertical elevation (hypsometrical relations of mountain-chains). Our planet has two envelopes, of which one, which is general -- the atmosphere -- is composed of an elastic fluid, and the other -- the sea -- is only locally distributed, surrounding, and therefore modifying, the form of the land. These two envelopes of air and sea const.i.tute a natural whole, on which depend the difference of climate on the earth's surface, according to the relative extension of the aqueous and solid parts, the form and aspect of the land, and the direction and elevation of mountain chains. A knowledge of the reciprocal action of air, sea, and land teaches us that great meteorological phenomena can not be comprehended when considered independently of geognostic relations.

Meteorology, as well as the geography of plants and animals, has only begun to make actual progress since the mutual dependence of the phenomena to be investigated has been fully recognized. The word climate has certainly special reference to the character of the atmosphere, but this character is itself dependent on the perpetually concurrent influences of the ocean, which is universally and deeply agitated by currents having a totally opposite temperature, and of radiation from the dry land, which varies greatly in form, elevation, color, and fertility, whether we consider its bare, rocky portions, or those that are covered with arborescent or herbaceous vegetation.

In the present condition of the surface of our planet, the area of the solid is to that of the fluid parts as 1:2 4/5ths (according to Rigaud, as 100:270).*

[footnote] *See 'Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society', vcl.

vi., Part ii., 1837, p. 297. Other writers have given the ratio as 100:284.

The islands form scarcely 1/22d of the continental ma.s.ses, which are so unequally divided that they consist of three times more land in the northern than in the southern hemisphere; the latter being, therefore, pre-eminently oceanic. From 40 degrees south lat.i.tude to the Antarctic pole the earth is almost entirely covered with water. The fluid element predominates in like manner between the eastern sh.o.r.es of the Old and the western sh.o.r.es of the New Continent, being only interspersed with some few insular groups. The learned hydrographer Fleurieu has very justly named this p 289 vast oceanic basis, which, under the tropics, extends over 145degrees of longitude, the 'Great Ocean', in contradistinction to all other seas. The southern and western hemispheres (reckoning the latter from the meridian of Teneriffe) are therefore more rich in water than in any other region of the whole earth.

These are the main points involved in the consideration of the relative quant.i.ty of land and sea, a relation which exercises so important an influence on the distribution of temperature, the variations in atmospheric pressure, the direction of the winds, and the quant.i.ty of moisture contained in the air, with which the development of vegetation is so essentially connected. When we consider that nearly three fourths of the upper surface of our planet are covered with water,* we shall be less surprised at the imperfect condition of meteorology before the beginning of the present century, since it is only during the subsequent period that numerous accurate observations on the temperature of the sea at different lat.i.tudes and at different seasons have been made and numerically compared together.

[footnote] *In the Middle Ages, the opinion prevailed that the sea covered one seventh of the surface of the globe, an opinion which Cardinal d'Ailly ('Imago Mundi', cap. 8) founded on the fourth apocryphal book of Esdras.

Columbus, who derived a great portion of his cosmographical knowledge from the cardinal's work, was much interested in upholding this idea of the smallness of the sea, to which the misunderstood expression of "the ocean stream" contributed not a little. See Humboldt, 'Examen Critique de l'Hist.

de la Geographie', t. i., p. 186.

The horizontal configuration of continents in their general relations of extension was already made a subject of intellectual contemplation by the ancient Greeks. Conjectures were advanced regarding the maximum of the extension from west to east, and Dicaearchus placed it, according to the testimony of Agathemerus, in the lat.i.tude of Rhodes, in the direction of a line pa.s.sing from the Pillars of Hercules to Thine. This line, which has been termed 'the parallel of the diaphragm of Dicaearchus', is laid down with an astronomical accuracy of position, which, as I have stated in another work, is well worthy of exciting surprise and admiration.*

[footnote] *Agathemerus, in Hudson, 'Geographi Minores', t. ii., p. 4. See Humboldt, 'Asie Centr.', t. i., p. 120-125.

Strabo, who was probably influenced by Eratosthenes, appears to have been so firmly convinced that this parallel of 36 degrees was the maximum of the extension of the then existing world, that he supposed it had some intimate connection with the form of the earth, and therefore places under this line the continent whose existence p 290 he divined in the northern hemisphere, between Theria and the coasts of Thine.*

[footnote] *Strabo, lib. i., p. 65, Casaub. See Humboldt, 'Examen Crit.', t. i., p. 152.

As we have already remarked, one hemisphere of the earth (whether we divide the sphere through the equator or through the meridian of Teneriffe) has a much greater expansion of elevated land than the opposite one: these two vast ocean-girt tracts of land, which we term the eastern and western, or the Old and New Continents, present, however, conjointly with the most striking contrasts of configuration and position of their axes, some similarities of form, especially with reference to the mutual relations of their opposite coasts. In the eastern continent, the predominating direction -- the position of the major axis -- inclines from east to west (or, more correctly speaking, from southwest to northeast), while in the western continent it inclines from south to north (or, rather, from south-southeast to north-northwest). Both terminate to the north at a parallel coinciding nearly with that of 70degrees, while they extend to the south in pyramidal points, having submarine prolongations of islands and shoals. Such, for instance, are the Archipelago of Tierra del Fuego, the Lagullas Bank south of the Cape of Good Hope, and Van Diemen's Land, separated from New Holland by Ba.s.s's Straits. Northern Asia extends to the above parallel at Cape Taimura, which, according to Krusenstern, is 78 degrees 16', while it falls below it from the mouth of the Great Tschukotsehja River eastward to Behring's Straits, in the eastern extremity of Asia -- Cook's East Cape -- which, according to Beechey, is only 66 degrees E.*

[footnote] *On the mean lat.i.tude of the Northern Asiatic sh.o.r.es, and the true name of Cape Taimura (Cape Siewere-Wostotschnoi), and Cape Northeast (Schalagskoi Mys), see Humboldt, 'Asie Centrale', t. iii., p. 35, 37.

The northern sh.o.r.e of the New Continent follows with tolerable exactness the parallel of 70 degrees, since the lands to the north and south of Barrow's Strait, from Boothia Felix and Victoria Land, are merely detached islands.

The pyramidal configuration of all the southern extremities of continents belongs to the 'similtudines physicae in configuratione mundi', to which Bacon already called attention in his 'Novum Organon', and with which Reinhold Foster, one of Cook's companions in his second voyage of circ.u.mnavigation, connected some ingenious considerations. On looking eastward from the meridian of Teneriffe, we perceive that the southern extremities of the three continents, viz., Africa as the extreme p 291 of the Old World, Australia, and South America, successively approach nearer toward the south pole. New Zealand, whose length extends fully 12 degrees of lat.i.tude, forms an intermediate link between Australia and South America, likewise terminating in an island, New Leinster. It is also a remarkable circ.u.mstance that the greatest extension toward the south falls in the Old Continent, under the same meridian in which the extremest projection toward the north pole is manifested. This will be perceived on comparing the Cape of Good Hope and the Lagullas Bank with the North Cape of Europe, and the peninsula of Malacca with Cape Taimura in Siberia.*

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Asie Centrale', t. i., p. 198-200. The southern point of America, and the Archipelago which we call Terra del Fuego, lie in the meridian of the northwestern part of Baffin's Bay, and of the great polar land, whose limits have not as yet been ascertained, and which, perhaps, belongs to West Greenland.

We know not whether the poles of the earth are surrounded by land or by a sea of ice. Toward the north pole the parallel of 82 degrees 55' has been reached, but toward the south pole only that of 78 degrees 10'.

The pyramidal terminations of the great continents are variously repeated on a smaller scale, not only in the Indian Ocean and in the peninsulas of Arabia, Hindostan, and Malacca, but also, as was remarked by Eratosthenes and Polybius, in the Mediterranean, where these writers had ingeniously compared together the forms of the Iberian, Italian, and h.e.l.lenic peninsulas.*

[footnote] *Strabo, lib. ii., p. 92, 108, Ca.s.saub.

Europe, whose area is five times smaller than that of Asia, may almost be regarded as a multifariously articulated western peninsula of the more compact ma.s.s of the ontinent of Asia, the climatic relations of the former being to those of the latter as the peninsula of Brittany is to the rest of France.

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Asie Centrale', t. iii., p. 25. As early as the year 1817, in my work 'De distributione Geographica Plantarum, secundum caels temperiem et alt.i.tudinem Montium', I directed attention to the important influence of compact and of deeply-articulated continents on climate and human civilization, "Regiones vel per sinus lunatos in longa cornua porrectae, angulois littorum recessibus quasi membratim discerptae, vel spatia patentia in immensum, quorum littora nullis incisa angulis ambit sine aufractu ocea.n.u.s" (p. 81, 182). On the relations of the extent of coast to the area of a continent (considered in some degree as a measure of the accessibility of the interior), see the inquiries in Berghaus, 'Annalen der Erdkunde', bd. xii., 1835, s. 490, and 'Physikal. Atlas', 1839, No.

iii., s. 69.

The influence exercised by the articulation and higher development of the form of a continent on the moral and intellectual condition of nations was remarked by Strabo,* who extols p 292 the varied form of our small continent as a special advantage.

[footnote] *Strabo, lib. ii., p. 92, 198. Casaub.

Africa* and South America, which manifest so great a resemblence in their configuration, are also the two continents that exhibit the simplest littoral outlines.

[footnote] *Of Africa, Pliny says (v. 1), "Nec alia pars terrarum paudiores recipit sinus." The small Indian peninsula on this side the Ganges present, in its triangular outline, a third a.n.a.logous form. In ancient Greece there prevailed an opinion of the regular configuration of the dry land. There were four gulfs or bays, among which the Persian Gulf was placed in opposition to the Hyrcanian or Caspian Sea (Arrian, vii., 16; Plut., 'in vita Alexandri', cap. 44; Dionys. Perieg., v. 48 and 630, p. 11, 38, Bernh.). These four bays and the isthmuses were, according to the optical fancies of Agesianax, supposed to be reflected in the moon (Plut., 'de Facie in Orbem Lunae', p. 921, 19). Respecting the 'terra quadrifida', or four divisions of the dry land, of which two lay north and two south of the equator, see Macrobius, 'Comm. in Somnium Scipionis', ii., 9. I have submitted this portion of the geography of the ancients, regarding which great confusion prevails, to a new and careful examination, in my 'Examen Crit. de l'Hist. de la Geogr.', t. i., p. 119, 145, 180-185, as also in 'Asie Centr.', t. ii., p. 172-178.

It is only the eastern sh.o.r.es of Asia, which, broken as it were by the force of the currents of the ocean* ('fractas ex aequore terra'), exhibit a richly-variegated configuration, peninsulas and contiguous islands alternating from the equator to 60 degrees north lat.i.tude.

[footnote] *Fleurieu, in 'Voyage de Marchand autour du Monde', t. iv., p.

38-42.

Our Atlantic Ocean presents all the indications of a valley. It is as if a flow of eddying waters had been directed first toward the northeast, then toward the northwest, and back again to the northeast. The parallelism of the coasts north of 10 degrees south lat.i.tude, the projecting and receding angles, the convexity of Brazil opposite to the Gulf of Guinea, that of Africa under the same parallel, with the Gulf of the Antilles, all favor this apparently speculative view.*

[footnote] *Humboldt, in the 'Journal de Physique', liii., 1799, p. 33; and 'Rel. Hist.', t. ii., p. 19; t. iii., p. 189, 198.